THE EATON 




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OF THE 




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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



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< u a 

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THE EATON SERIES 



HISTORY 



UNITED STATES 



By alma HOLMAN BURTON, 

Author o£ "Builders of Our Nation" and other historical works 




i'^- 



,t 



V" 



, Copyright, 1899 

Copyright, 1905 

Copyright, 1910 
by 

EATON & COMPANY 



©GiA^csyc^ 



PREFACE 

^The chief aim of the author in compiling this book 
is to awaken an abiding interest in the history of our 
country. To this end the narrative style, grouping facts 
together with direct reference to cause and effect, has 
been adopted. 

Chronology, the dread of the average young student, 
has been arranged in marginal notes, thus presenting a 
more than usually complete list of dates without detract- 
ing from the sustained recital. 

Maps of the scenes of action and portraits of the 
personages who have played their part in the wondrous 
human drama enacted in the Western Hemisphere have 
been selected with the utmost care ; the bibliography 
suggested in the footnotes and appendix is such as any 
. school can afford to secure; the Table of Contemporary 
European Sovereigns and that of the Admission of the 
States to the Union will be found invaluable for refer- 
ence, while the full page colored maps of territorial 
readjustments will render the study of treaties and pur- 
chases a more pleasing and profitable task. 

The object for which this little history has been 
written will have been attained if its pages incite to 
further quest — not only in the exhaustive works to be 
found on the shelves of the library, but in newspapers 
and magazines, in the utterances from the public plat- 
forms, and quiet talks around the fireside at home — of 
those great underlying principles of self-government 
which have made our republic the pride and glory of 
the century fast drawing to a close. 

To mention severally the historians, from Bancroft, 
Palfrey, and others of yesterday to Lodge, Andrews, and 

[iii] 



IV PREFACE. 

others of to-day, whose genius and toil have made the 
completion of this volume possible, would require a vol- 
ume of itself. 

Grateful acknowledgment is especially due to Charles 
A. Mc Murry, Ph. D., and Supt. F. W. Nichols for help- 
ful suggestions as to the text ; and to E. C. Page, pro- 
fessor of history in the Northern Illinois Normal, for the 
various maps, which he personally supervised. 

A. H. B. 



CONTENTS 



INTRODUCTION 

Chapter 

I The Old World and the New 
Chart ..... 

FIRST EPOCH 

II Pilots and Pioneers 
III Pilots and Pioneers (Continued) 
Chart ..... 



Page 

7 

13 

14 
22 
27 



SECOND EPOCH 



IV 

V 

VI 

VII 

VIII 

IX 

X 

XI 

XII 

XIII 

XIV 

XV 

XVI 

XVII 

XVIII 



The Oldest English Settlement in America 28 



The Cavaliers .... 

The Plymouth Company's Grant . 

The Pilgrims .... 

The Puritans .... 

The Five Colonies of New England 

The United Colonies of New England 

The People of New England 

Troublous Times in New England 

The Later Colonies 

Under the Royal Governors 

War, Witches, and Pirates . 

The Westward March . 

The French and Indian War 

The Thirteen Colonies 

Chart ..... 

THIRD EPOCH 



XIX Causes of the Revolution . 
XX The Revolution ..... 
XXI The Revolution (Continued) 

Chart ....... 

FOURTH EPOCH 

XXII A More Perfect Union 

XXIII Federalists and Anti-Federalists 

Administrations: 

XXIV George Washington, Federalist 
XXV George Washington (Continued) . 

XXVI George Washington (Continued) . 
XXVII John Adams, Federalist 
XXVIII Thomas Jefferson, Democratic-Republican 



35 
40 

44 
51 
56 
61 

65 
73 
82 

89 

94 

100 

105 
112 
119 

121 

128 
139 
151 



152 
157 

163 

173 

179 

185 
189 



VI CONTEXTS 

XXIX Thomas Jeffersox (Continued) 195 

XXX James Madison, Democratic- Republican . . . 199 

XXXI James Monroe, Democratic- Republican . . . 208 

XXXII James Monroe (Continued) 213 

XXXIII John Quincy Adams, National Reiniblican . . 219 

XXXIV Andrew Jackson, Democratic 223 

XXXV Martin Van Buren, Democratic 233 

XXXVI William Henry Harrison and John Tyler, ■ 

Whig 235 

XXXVII James K. Polk, Democratic 239 

XXXVIII Zachary Taylor, Whig 247 

XXXIX Franklin Pierce, Democratic 236 

XL James Buchanan, Democratic 262 

XLI James Buchanan (Continued) 267 

Chart 272 

FIFTH EPOCH 

XLII Abraham Lincoln, Republican 274 

XLIII Abraham Lincoln (Continued) 288 

Chart 302 

SIXTH EPOCH 

XLIV Andrew Johnson, Republican 303 

XLV Ulysses S. Grant, Republican 307 

XLVI LTlysses S. Grant (Contmued) 312 

XLVII Rutherford B. Hayes, Republican 319 

XLVIII James A. Garfield and Chester A. Arthur, 

Republican 324 

XLIX Grover Cleveland, Democratic 331 

L Benjamin Harrison, Republican 337 

LI Grover Cleveland, Democratic 344 

LII Grover Cleveland (Continued) 352 

LIII William McKinley, Republican 3 58 

LIV William McKinley (Continued) 360 

LV Theodore Roosevelt (Republican) 387 

LVI Theodore Roosevelt (Continued) 393 

LVII William H. Taft (Republican) 395 

Chart 399 



APPEXDIX 

Declaration of Independence i 

Constitution of the United States v 

Table of States and Territories xx 

Sovereigns in Colonial Times xxi 

Rulers of Principal Foreign Countries in 1903 . . . xxi 

American Embassies and Legations in 1903 xxii 

Letter of Christopher Columbus (Translated) .... xxiii 

Collateral Readings xxix 

Pronouncing Vocabulary xxx 

Index xxxi 



LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT MAPS 



Early Voyages to America 

British Possessions in America in 1764 

United States in 1783 

Election of 1789 .... 

Election of 1796 .... 

Election of 1800 .... 

United States in i8oo (Full page colored map.) 
Facing 

Election of 1824 

Election of 1828 

United States in 1830 (Full page colored map) 
Facing 

Election of 1840 

Election of 1844 

Election of 1848 

United States in 1850 (Full page colored map) 
Facing 

Election of 1852 

Election of 1856 

United States in 
Facing 

Election of i860 .... 

Areas of Freedom and Slavery in 1861 

Election of 1864 .... 

Territorial Growth of the United States (Double 
page colored map) Following 

Election of 1880 

Election of 1884 

United States in 1890 (Full page colored map) 
Facing 

Election of 1892 

Election of 1896 

The World in 1899, Showing Territorial Expan- 
sion of the United States (Double page 
colored map) Follotving , . . . 



i860 (Full page colored map) 



Page. 
17 

149 
161 

183 
189 

189 
218 



222 

235 
237 
246 

251 
255 
261 

266 
268 

277 
297 

306 
323 

338 
343 
357 



384 



fvii] 



INTRODUCTION 




1450-1492 

CHAPTER I 

THE OLD WORLD AND THE NEW 

>.OUR hundred and fifty years ago, 
the continents of North and South 
America were not marked on the 
maps of the world. 

Indeed, only the north coast of 
Africa and that part of Asia cov- 
ered by the Arabian Desert and its 
caravan trails, were really known to Europeans. 

For many generations the treasures of India were 
brought by camels from the Persian Gulf and the Red Trade between 

J. ^ Europe and Asia 

Sea to the ports of the Black and Mediterranean beas, i„ the 15th cemury 
whence the merchant-ships of Genoa and Venice distrib- ' 

uted them to the cities of Europe. ^^^^ 

When the Turks seized Constantinople, they shut off The Turks seize 
the trade by the Black Sea; and then, spreading like a 
crescent around the eastern and southern borders of the 
Mediterranean, they subjected trade by way of Alex- 
andria to such a high tax that commerce with the Orient 
was fast ceasing altogether. 

How might the trade with the East be established 
again? "Drive out the Turk!" said the kings and 
their armies. " Sail around the Turk," said the naviga- 
tors and their seamen; and while kings marshaled their 
warriors, navigators launched their ships. 

[7] 



Constantinople 



INTRODUCTION 



Prince Henr>', the 
Navigator 



1455 



John 11 of Portugal 



The greatest seamen of the time were the Portuguese. 
Prince Henry, the Navigator, declared that India might 
be reached by saihng around Africa; but people then 
looked on such an expedition much as they look to-day 
on a trip to the North Pole. 

Prince Henry persevered in his plans, however. His 
Prince Henry begins pilots coastcd aloug the wcst shore of Africa until they 
w?stToII"of VfrL passed the mouth of the Senegal River; then they sailed 
boldly on to the Gambia, and brought back wonderful 
tales of their adventures with the negroes who dwelt on 
its banks. Henry, the Navigator, died before his pilots 
had reached the Equator. When John H came to the 
throne of Portugal, he continued the explorations down 
the coast of Africa, always hoping to find a passage 
to India. 

Perhaps his pilots talked of a voyage beyond the 

Azores. But there lay the "Sea of Darkness," where 

the charts pictured the giant hand of Satan rising out of 

the waters to seize any ship that entered into that region. 

'And how," asked the pilots, "may one go 

east by going west over a flat sea .'' " 

Some of the most learned men believed 
>, that the earth was a sphere, about which 
the sun and the other planets revolved; but 
even they could not conceive how a ship 
might sail without falling ofi when it reached 
the downward curve. 

The sailors of King John pushed 
cautiously on to the south along the 
west coast of Africa. And while they were try- 
ing at every bend to find a way to the East, two 
undiscovered continents lay far in the West. 

The two •' 

continents in the Thcsc Continents, one lying south of the other, were 
peopled by strange races of men. In the extreme north 



TTie "Sea of 
Darkness " 



# 




THE OLD WORLD AND THE NEW 




were the Eskimos, "eaters of raw meat." They were a The Eskimos 
people of yellow skin who dressed in furs, and speared 
the seal and walrus in the icy waters which feed the 
Arctic Ocean. 

South of the Eskimos dwelt a race, not 
brown like the Turks nor black like the 
negroes, but red, or copper colored. They 
had jet black eyes and hair. Their faces 
were melancholy, and their bodies lithe 
and graceful; the most of them went naked, 
or dressed in skins, and adorned them- 
selves with many things, such as feathers, 
bones, bears' claws, and the scalps of their 
enemies. The women, or squaws, cut wood 
for camp-fires, set up tents, and tended corn; and the war- 
riors hunted, or went on the warpath to their enemies. 

The red men had no beasts of burden; they made The red men 
their way through the forests on 
foot, or glided down the streams 
in birch-bark canoes. They were 
skilled in woodcraft; and though 
mild and hospitable in peace, they 
were cruel and revengeful in war. 
They were divided into many na- 
tions. The Algonquins lived in wig- 
wams, or tents made of skins. 
They roamed with cunning stealth 
through the tangled forests bordering the Great Lakes, 
the Ohio, and the Atlantic Coast as far south as the 
James River. 

And in their midst, and surrounded by them like lions 
in a jungle of tigers, were the Iroquois, or 
Five Nations, who were so brave and 
intelligent that all the other nations 




The Algonquins 



PAPOOSE 




lO 



INTRODUCTION 



feared them. The Five Nations were closely united 
The Iroquois foF Warfare, and dwelt in "long houses" made of bark, 

which were grouped in villages thickly planted from the 
Hudson River to Lakes Ontario and Erie. 

South of the Algonquins were the Cherokees and the 
Tuscaroras, who were cousins of the Iroquois. 
The Muskohgees s^ill farther south, among the Blue Ridge Mountains 

and in the low lands along the Gulf of Mex 

ico, were the Mus- \ t kohgees. They built 
houses of timber, ¥L and made pottery, 

and wove cloth M. ^^^^ hemp and flax. 




INDIAN WIGWAM 



The Dakotas and 
Comanches 



The Aztecs and 
Toltecs 



West of the Mississippi, the great ' ' Father of 
Waters," lived the Dakotas and the Comanches. 

Beyond the Rocky Mountains were the Shoshones 
and other scattered nations along the coast. 

In Mexico and Peru lived the Aztecs and the Mayas, 
who were mild and gentle. They founded cities with 
temples and aqueducts, and carried on mining and 
manufacturing, and dug canals, and reveled in gardens 
adorned with statues and fountains. 



THE OLD WORLD AND THE NEW 



II 



Both in North and in South America there were 
mounds of vast length and height, which seemed to be 
of great antiquity. Some of these were evidently in- 
tended for religious symbols; and along the 
Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and through- ^jy 
out the Ohio valley were embankments as 
if for defense. y^^ 

But the red men of whom we are 
speaking had no tradition 
of the people who con- 



T^-*-^ 



these 



rth 




AZTEC TEMPLE 



structed 
works. 

All of the tribes in 
the two great western 
continents were supersti- 
tious in religion. Some 
worshiped the sun, but most of 
them adored a Great Spirit who ruled 
over nature and punished the bad, or rewarded those 
who sought him in fasting and prayer. Their priests, 
or medicine men, were skilled in the art of healing the 
sick, and claimed to exorcise evil spirits through weird 
incantations. 

Some of the tribes cherished a dim tradition that one Traditions of 
day a Fair God would appear, with hair 
5*5:^' like gold and eyes blue as the sky. They 
longed for the coming of the white man; 
then the game in the forest, and the 
fish in the river, and the corn in 
the good mother earth would be 
multiplied; and the pipe of peace 
would be smoked by all the tribes. 
It is of some such vague tradition that our poet Long- 
fellow sings in the vision of Hiawatha; though, alas for 



white men 




**5''"' jaJRi'^Jv-' 



A MOUND IN MEXICO. 



12 



INTRODUCTION 



his people, the Indian seer reaHzed what the coming of 
the palefaces would really mean : — 

" Only Hiawatha laughed not, 
But he gravely spoke and answered : 

" ' I have seen it in a vision. 
Seen the great canoe with pinions. 
Seen the people with white faces, 
Seen the coming of this bearded 
People of the wooden vessel 
From the region of the morning. — 

" ' I beheld, too, in that vision 
All the secrets of the future; 
Of the distant days that shall be 
I beheld the westward marches 
Of the unknown, crowded nations. 
All the land was full of people. 
Restless, struggling, toiling, striving, 
Speaking many tongues, yet feeling 
But one heart beat in their bosoms. 
In the woodlands rang their axes, 
Smoked their towns in all the valleys 
Over all the lakes and rivers 
Rushed their great canoes of thunder. " 




( Most of Europe 
Known to Europeans \ North Coast of Africa 






West Portion of Asia 







India 






iditional 


China 
Japan 






^ The Spice Islands 




Mohegans 




Pequods 




Narragansetts 


• 


Wampanoags 




Massachusetts 


' Eskimos 


Algonquins < 


Delawares 
Powhatans 
Shawnees 
Lenni 






Lenapes 
etc. 


' Senecas 
Cayugas 






' Five Nations • 


Onondagas 
Oneidas 




Iroquois 




_ Mohawks 


Red Men • 




Scattered Na- 


Hurcns 
Eries 






^ tions 


Cherokees 
Tuscaroras 






Seminoles 




Muskohgees . 


Creeks 
Choctaws 




Dakotas 


Chickasaws 




Comanches 






Shoshones 






Aztecs 






etc. 




Antiquities 


3f the Mound-1 


}uilders 





South Continent 



Red Men 



Mayas 



etc. 



Ruins of a more Ancient People 
[13] 




?miE EP0Cf1„i ' 
- 'OPDlSCdVERY 

J492 J6I5 



CHAPTER II 



PILOTS AND PIONEERS 



^454 

Christopher Colum 
bus goes to se^i 



Christopher Columbus spent his early years in 
Genoa, on the west coast of Italy. It is said that he 
went to sea at the age of fourteen, and visited most of 
the ports of Europe and Africa while still very young. 
Many things which he saw and heard set him to thinking 
that there was much yet to learn ia the world. He read 
Sir John Maiideviu.; au old book Written by Sir John Mandeville, a famous 
English traveler, who said that he knew the earth was 
round instead of flat, and that by sailing far enough a 
man might reach the point from which he started. 

And while Columbus made charts for a scanty living 
in Lisbon, he studied more and more the problems of the 
unknown seas. He married a Portuguese lady whose 
father was a famous navigator and had many charts, 
and the more Columbus studied these charts, the more 
he was convinced that Sir John was right. He talked 
[14] 



PILOTS AND PIONEERS 



IS 




with Toscanelli, a famous Florentine astronomer, who 
said that he beheved it possible to reach Asia by way of 
the Atlantic Ocean. 

Toscanelli was so much pleased 
with the Genoese chart maker that 
he sent him a map with Japan and 
the Spice Islands marked about 
where Mexico is. 

Columbus made a voyage to Ice- 
land, and it is thought that while 
^he was there he learned that in the 
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS Y^ar looo, Leif, the son of Eric 
About 1436-1506 thc Rcd, Sailed west from Green- 

land to lands abounding in vines and trees much larger 
and finer than any ever before seen. 

At last he resolved to hazard a voyage into the Sea 
of Darkness. He sought audience with King John of 
Portugal, and pleaded for ships to sail to India 
by way of the West. 

The shrewd monarch had some faith in the 
theory of the Genoese, but, thinking he de- 
manded too great reward for his 
services, he sent out his own pilots 
secretly. The sailors soon re- 
turned, however, scoffing at 
Columbus as a "dreamer of 
dreams." 

Disgusted with the treachery of 
John of Portugal, Columbus sought 
the favor of Ferdinand and Isabella 
of Spain. The king was busy driving viking s 

the Moors from his realm, and had then neither time 
nor money to devote to such an uncertain enterprise. 
Columbus joined the Spanish army, and when the vic- 



1474 

Toscanelli sends 
a map to 
Columbus 



1000 
Leif Ericson 
finds new lands 
in the West 







HIP 

1484 
Columbus seeks 
the favor of 
Ferdinand and 
Isabella of Spain 



i6 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



1492 
The Pinta, the 
Nina, and the 
Santa Mar {a 
sail from Spain 
(August 3) 



torious war was over, three ships, the Pinta, the Nifm^ 
and the Sa7ita Ma^-ia were made ready for his purpose. 

They were frail barks, hardly larger than a fishing 
smack of to-day, and, as they lifted anchor in the harbor 
of Palos, the sailors felt they were daring much to 
attempt such a voyage. 

Columbus steered first to the Canary Islands and then 
due west into the unknown waters, whence none who 
had gone had ever returned. He calmed the mutinous 
crew by his patience and courage, and kept steadily on 
in his course until a flock of land birds guided him to the 



I 



#■ V 



UNDING OF COLUMBUS 



The Discovery 
of America by 
Christopher 
Columbus 

(October i2J 



Columbus names 
the natives 
"Indians" 



southwesterly direction, and at dawn on the 12th day of 
October, 1492, he landed in the New World. He shook 
out the silken banner of Spain, and took possession of 
the country, which he called San Salvador, from the 
name of the day in the Spanish calendar. 

He sailed among the islands now known as the 
Bahamas, and was everywhere received with delight 
by the natives, whom he called "Indians" because he 
thought he had found India. 

He coasted along Cuba and landed on Haiti, which 
he called Hispaniola, or Little Spain; and there, on the 
Bay of Caraola, he erected a fort out of the timbers of 
the Santa I^arid, which had gone to pieces on a reef. 



PILOTS AND PIONEERS 



17 



1493 



Then leaving forty men on the island, with food enough 

to last a year, he set sail for home, carrying several Heretums'to 

natives and many curious and beautiful plants, birds, ^^'° 

and animals as proof of his discoveries. He reached 

Spain in March. ^ 




Ferdinand and Isabella were amazed and delighted 
when they heard of the new land of beauty and song. 
They doubted not that -a short way had been found to 
the rich treasures of India, and the islands were called 
the West Indies because they were reached by sailing 
west. 



^ See Appendix, page 406. 



i8 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



His later voyages 



1497-98 
John and 
Sebastian Cabot 
explore from 
Labrador to 
Albemarle Sound 



Verrazzauo coasts 
from Cape 
Hatteras to 
Newfoundland 

New France 



When Columbus returned to Hispaniola, he found his 
colony destroyed. He established another colony in 
Haiti, and left his brother Diego in command. 

Columbus made two more voyages, during which he 
touched the mainland of South America near the mouth 
of the Orinoco River, and explored the south side of the 
Caribbean Sea. 

Meantime his colony in the West Indies repudiated 
him. He returned from his fourth voyage a broken- 
hearted sailor, whose queen was dead and whose king 
was ungrateful. He had not found the treasure he 
sought, yet to the day of his death Christopher Colum- 
bus believed he had discovered the east coast of India. 

While it was thought that at last a new way to Asia 
had been found, kings vied with one another in sending 
expeditions to the West. 

According to the laws of the time, if a mariner hoisted 
a flag on an unknown shore, or if he only sighted new 
land from afar, it belonged to his king. 

When John Cabot, five years after the first voyage of 
Columbus, touched the coast of Labrador, he set up the 
flag of England ; and when in the following year his son 
Sebastian coasted farther south, King Henry VII laid 
claim to North America from Labrador to Albemarle 
Sound. 

A few years later Verrazzano coasted in a French 
vessel from Cape Hatteras to Newfoundland, and King 
Francis I named the country New France. 

Soon fishing smacks from both England and France 
followed the ships of the Cabots to Newfoundland. The 
hardy fishermen caught and dried vast quantities of cod, 
and hurried back to sell them in all the ports of Europe. 
But they said that the winters were very severe, and for 
many years both England and France neglected their 
lands in America. 



PILOTS AND PIONEERS 1 9 

Cortereal sailed from Portugal to explore the coast 

of North America, and Cabral sig^hted what is now 

. . 1501 

Brazil. The following year Americus Vespucius, in Amerkus 

Portuguese ships, explored the coast of South America ^^^00^10'"^'°'" 

as far south as the La Plata River, ^nd secured Brazil south America 

to Portugal. 

• It was now known that the land thought to be an 

island was really a great continent, and people began 

to talk of the continent of Americus. 

Then Balboa, the Spaniard, crossed the Isthmus of Baiboaand 
Darien,^ and beheld a new ocean, which he called the pa^dfic^ocean ^ 
South Sea; but, a few years later, Magellan, the Portu- 
guese, called it the Pacific as he sailed over its peaceful 
waters with a Spanish fleet, on his way around the world. 

Ponce de Leon, the Spanish governor of Porto Rico, PoncedeLeon 

sailed northwest while seeking the "Fountain of Youth." ''^^'^ " °" ^ 

He reached the mainland on Easter Sunday, and called 

the country Florida, because that day was Pascua 

Florida in the calendar. 

1520 

De Ayllon, in quest of slaves, was driven by a storm DeAyiionin 
to the coast of South Carolina, and loaded his ships with south Carolina 

the natives who had fed him in their tents. 

1519 

Hernando Cortez landed in Mexico,^ and marching to conez in Mexico 
the capital, imprisoned King Montezuma, and made the 
empire of the Aztecs a Spanish province. A few years 
later Pizarro conquered Peru, and from' these two prov- Pizarro in Peru 
inces pearls and precious metals poured into the ' ' Golden 
Tower" of Seville, until king, nobles, and merchant navi- 
gators were mad for gain. „ 

Thousands perished seeking for gold. De Narvaez DeNarvaez 
and four hundred horsemen and footmen in search of 'f"'^f^u u 

Apalachee bay 

rich cities, landed at Apalachee Bay. They wandered 
westward, fighting hunger and the natives, until, after 
eight years of suffering, only four of the party lived to 

1 It is now known as the Isthmus of Panama. 2 Read Prescott's " Mexico." 



20 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



1540 
Coronado searches 
for the " Seven 
Cities of Cibola" 



1537 
De Soto sets sail 
from Spain 




FERNANDO DE SOTO 
About 1496-1542 



1542 
Death of De Soto 



1565 
St. Augustine 
founded by 
Pedro Menendez 



1562 
John Ribaut*! 
colony in Carolina 



reach Culiacan, a Spanish settlement on the west coast 
of Mexico. The Spanish governor of Mexico, hearing 
of the wonderful country through which they had passed, 
sent out exploring parties. Coronado, with over a thou- 
sand men, march£d into New Mexico, and then wan- 
dered eastward in search of seven fabled cities. It is 
thought that in his vain quest he reached the Republican 
Valley in Nebraska. 

Meantime Fernando de Soto was made governor of 
Cuba and Florida. With six hundred Castilian nobles 
he set out from Spain in high hopes of finding 
treasure. On reaching America he left his 
beautiful wife in charge of affairs in Cuba, 
and sailed with his army to Florida. 

He landed at Tampa Bay, and after wander- 
ing through the marshes and forests north of 
the Gulf of Mexico, he crossed the Mississippi 
and pushed on into what is now the State of 
Arkansas; then turning back, he sickened and 
died, and was buried under the waves of the 
great river he had found. The survivors built 
boats, and reached at last a Spanish settle- 
ment in Mexico by way of the gulf. 
Thus, in one expedition after another, the Spaniards 
failed to find gold in what is now the United States; 
and they made no permanent settlement there until 
Pedro Menendez reached Florida. Menendez brought 
two thousand five hundred sailors, soldiers, common 
laborers, and black-robed priests, who laid the founda- 
tion of St. Augustine. 

This settlement was made in Florida to prevent the 

French from securing territory claimed by the Spanish. 

Some Frenchmen, led by John Ribaut, had landed in 

a region farther north, which they called Carolina in 



PILOTS AND PIONEERS 21 

honor of Charles IX, king of France, and built Port 
Royal; famine had soon reduced them to such extremes, 
however, that the few who survived returned home. g 

Other Frenchmen, under Laudonniere, soon built a fort Laudonmfere-s 
on the St. John's River, which they called Fort Carolina. s°. joU-s Riler 
And while the Spaniards were building the stout walls of 
St. Augustine, the men of Fort Carolina began an expe- 
dition against them. A storm at sea arose, and, while 
the French ships were scattered, Menendez attacked 




aURIAL OF DESOTO 

Fort Carolina, putting men, women, and children to 
death. Then, while Menendez was absent in Spain, 
Dominic de Gourgues, a Frenchman, sailed with a small DeOourgues 
fleet to St. Augustine, and killed or imprisoned all the s"^Augustine 
inhabitants. Menendez returned to St. Augustine with 
more colonists, and strengthened the port. 

Thus Spain claimed by actual settlement the West 
Indies, Mexico, Florida, and all of South America except 
Brazil, which was claimed by the Portuguese. 



CHAPTER III 

PILOTS AND PIONEERS (Continued) 



1534 

Jacques Cartier 

on the 

St. Lawrence 



154I 



1605 

De Monts founds 
Port Royal in 
Nova Scotia 



1608 

Champlain founds 
Quebec 



Henry Hudson's 
voyage 



1613 
The Dutch make a 
settlement on 
Manhattan Island 



The success of Spain in founding colonies in the New 
World had induced France to be more zealous in her 
plans for settlements there. On a fair day in August 
Jacques Cartier sailed up the St. Lawrence, and planted 
the lilies of France on its green banks. The following 
year he made treaties with the natives, and named a 
lofty hill Mont Real, on which an Indian village stood. 

A few years afterward, Cartier built a fort near the 
site of Quebec; but the bands of criminals whom he had 
brought from the jails to secure it, sailed back to France 
the following spring. More than a half century passed 
before the French again attempted to colonize America. 
Then De Monts obtained a grant of all the territory 
between the sites of Montreal and Philadelphia. He 
called his province Acadia, and founded Port Royal on 
the west coast of what is now Nova Scotia. Three 
years later Champlain and some traders built rude huts 
and planted orchards below the stockade fort at Quebec. 
And so the reign of France began in America. 

The year following the founding of Quebec, Henry 
Hudson, an English pilot in the service of Holland, 
reached the coast of Maine. Sailing as far south as 
Cape May, he entered Delaware Bay; then steering 
north along the Jersey shore, he ascended the beautiful 
river which bears his name. The Dutch then laid claim 
to all the country drained by the Delaware and Hudson 
Rivers in spite of the discoveries made by the English 
and the French. They called the region New Nether- 
lands, and built cabins on Manhattan Island to carry on 
[22] 



PILOTS AND PIONEERS 23 

the fur trade with the Indians, and then established Fort 
Nassau, on the Hudson, near the site of Albany. 

When Philip, of Spain, came to England to marry 1554 

Queen Mary, his Spanish grandees told marvelous tales 
of the treasure found in America. A new interest was 
aroused in the discovery of the Cabots, and when Queen 
Elizabeth ascended the throne, adventurers were eager to 
scour the seas in her service. No one was more anxious 
for wealth and renown than the young queen herself, 
and soon vessels of all shapes and sizes were moored in 
the harbors of England. ^ 

Elizabeth sent Sir Martin Frobisher to America to Martin Frobisher 
search for gold, and a northwest passage to India ; but ^onhJeVpatsage 
he found no passage, and brought back glittering mica toindia 
instead of gold. 

The queen frowned at no seaman who carried Spanish 
doubloons in his pockets, and so Francis Drake, a bold Francis Drake seu 
rover, who "hated nothing so much as idleness," sailed °^' °" * '*'°y»ee 
over the Spanish Main. 

He passed through the Strait of Magellan, loaded his 
ship with plunder from the harbors of the west coast of 
South America, and, fearing the Spanish fleet to the 
south, steered north through the Pacific Ocean in search 
of a passage home. 

When he reached the coast of Oregon, he gave up the 1578 

quest, and, turning south for a harbor, landed on the coast 
of California. He named the land New Albion, and, 
sailing west through southern waters, reached England, 
at last, by way of the Cape of Good Hope. The brave 
sea rover had thus navigated around the globe; he was 
knighted by the queen; and, as Sir Francis Drake, was 
made the hero of many a story and song. 

Then Sir Humphrey Gilbert sailed away v/ith five 
ships to found a colony. He landed in Newfoundland. 



24 



DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



1583 
Sir Humphrey 
Gilbert attempts to 
found a colony in 
Newfoundland 



Sir Walter Raleigh 




SIR WALTER RALEIGH 



1584 
The expedition of 
Captains Amidas 
and Barlow 



1585 
Raleigh sends 
Ralph Lane with a 
colony to Roanoke 
Island 



but the climate was cold, and his men refused to stay. 
On the return voyage his own ship went down in a storm, 
and there was mourning throughout all England for that 
most gentle knight of the court. 

Now Sir Humphrey's half-brother, young Walter 
Raleigh, "with the soul of a sea-king, and the brain of 
a statesman," had been over in France to 
serve in the wars. While there, he heard 
much of Carolina, where the French Hugue- 
nots had attempted a settlement, — how 
' ' huge stalks with hanging ears of corn 
grew from a single grain, how deep in the 
earth the potatoes ripened their fruit, and 
how broad leaves of tobacco made a fra- 
grant powder to be smoked through a 
pipe." 

Raleigh was a favorite with the queen, 
and when he declared the lands to the 
south were hers by reason of the discovery of the Cabots, 
she encouraged him to fit out a fleet to explore them. 
He sent two small vessels to America under Captains 
Amidas and Barlow. In the month of July these bold 
seamen cast anchor off the shores of Carolina, and took 
possession in the name of the queen of England. Then 
they hastened back home to tell of "gentle natives who 
dwelt on islands fringed with verdure, with clambering 
vines and sedgy lakes, where flocks of birds rose like 
an army at the discharge of a gun." 

Elizabeth, the "Virgin C)ueen," was delighted with 
their report, and named the enchanting regions Virginia. 
Raleigh sent over a colony the following year to the 
island of Roanoke. The adventurers soon aroused the 
jealousy of the Indians, and were rescued from death by 
Sir Francis Drake who chanced to pass with a fleet. 



PILOTS AND PIONEERS 2$ 

•587 

Raleigh sent over a second colony to Virginia in com- Raleigh's second 
mand of John White. The men, with their wives and johTwhUe" 
children, landed on Roanoke Island, and began to build 
houses for a permanent settlement. 

Governor White soon after sailed back to England for 
supplies. He was detained there for three years by the 
Spanish war, and when he returned to Roanoke, the 
colony had disappeared. No one ever knew what became 
of it. 

Among those who were lost was White's little grand- 
daughter, Virginia Dare, the first English child born in 
America. 

Before the close of the century, Sir Walter Raleigh had 
sent no less than seven expeditions to Virginia. His 
emigrants went down in storms or perished by famine or 
were killed with the scalping knife. 

"I shall yet live to see Virginia an English nation," 
said the dauntless courtier, who had almost exhausted 
his fortune. 

After the war with Spain was over, the English armies 
disbanded. Many soldiers who had served Elizabeth by 
land and sea found nothing to do but seek their fortunes 
in the New World. When James I came to the throne, a 
number of knights, gentlemen, and merchants formed 
themselves into two companies, and applied for permis- 
sion to plant colonies in America. To the London Com- j^^^ 
pany the king gave the land from about Cape Fear River Royal grants to the 
to the Rappahannock, and to the Plymouth Company p°" outh" 
that from about the mouth of the Hudson River to Nova Companies 
Scotia. Each grant extended one hundred miles to the 
west from the coast. The land lying between the Rap- 
pahannock and the Hudson was to be held in common, 
but neither colony was permitted to make a settlement 
within a hundred miles of the other. These two grants 
came to be known as North Virginia and South Virginia. 



26 DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 

Councils in England, appointed by the king, were to 
make laws for the settlements, and local councils, ap- 
pointed by the councils in England, were to see that the 
laws were obeyed. The king might veto any law ; so 
that really everything began and ended with the king, 
who was to receive one fifth of all the precious metals 
found. 

It was believed that America was about half as wide 
as it is, and the king urged the companies to seek a pas- 
sage toward the west which would lead to the Pacific 
Ocean, 
g^ The very next year the London Company sent three 

The London well-equipped vessels to Roanoke Island under com- 

Ca"'tai'n^c^hrUtopher "i^nd of Captain Christopher Newport. Storms carried 
Newport to South them beyond the island into the beautiful Chesapeake 
Bay, the "Mother of Waters." As the voyagers passed 
up the bay, they named the headlands Cape Charles and 
Cape Henry, after the young princes. A point in deep 
water where the ships found anchor they named Point 
Comfort, and the silvery river, into which they soon 
sailed, was called the James. 

At fifty miles from the mouth of the James the colo- 
The founding of nists Cabled their ships to the overhanging trees, and in 
the budding month of May, 1607, they founded James- 
town, the oldest English settlement in America. 



Jamestown (May 23) 



f The Earliest Discoverers < 



O 



u 

o 



The Early Explorers 



, Settlements 



C Spanish 
English 
French 

Portuguese 



Spanish 



French 



Dutch 



English 



Spanish 



French 



j Christopher Columbus 
I Magellan 

] John and Sebastian Cabot 
J. Verrazzano 

Cortereal 

Cabral 

Americus Vespucius 

Balboa 

Ponce de Leon 

De Ayllon 

Cortez 

De Narvaez 

De Soto 

Menendez 



Cartier 
John Ribaut 
' Laudonniere 
Champlain 
De Monts 



Henry Hudson 

Martin Frobishei 
Francis Drake 
Walter Raleigh 
The London Company 
The Plymouth Company 

St. Augustine 
Santa Fe 
Missions 

Port Royal 

Quebec 

Missions 



Manhattan 
Fort Nassau 



Dutch \ 

English ] Jamestown 



[271 




f% 



IflE EPOCH or .^ETTLEriENT 






AND COLOMIAL DEX'ELOPNENT 
160 7 /;js 

CHAPTER IV 

THE OLDEST ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA 

1607- 1625 
• 1607 
Thecoionyat Under a Sail spFcad from tree to tree, with lo^s for 

the control of"the benches, the men of Jamestown read the service of the 
Council EngHsh Church. Then they erected a fort, with a paH- 

sade fence, and built a few log houses. But the settlers 
did not prosper, for they hunted gold instead of planting 
corn. The ship's stores gave out, and, until Captain 
Newport might bring supplies from England, they lived 
on the crabs and sturgeon from the river. Pestilence in the 
marshes and Indians in the forests thinned the ranks so 
that fifty of the hundred and five were dead, and those 
yet living were quite in despair when John Smith came 
to the rescue. 
Captain John Smith Now the name Smith, even in that day, was common 
enough, but this particular Smith was a very uncommon 
man. Before he was thirteen years old, his father died, 
and he ran off to sea. He fought the Spaniards and 
then the Turks. 

While sailing in the Mediterranean, he was cast like 
Jonah to the whales by a company of pilgrims on their 
[28] 



OLDEST ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA 



29 



way to the Holy Land, but he swam ashore in time to 
ac:omplish wonderful feats-at-arms in Hungary. He 
became a cupbearer to a Tartar prince, then a slave of 
slaves on the Black Sea. At last, escaping from bond- 
age, he returned to England just in time to sail for 
America in a ship of the London Company. 

A man of such renown as Captain Smith was not to 
be ignored. The company made him a member of the The "Father of 
Colonial Council. The other members of the council "^^'"'^ 
became jealous of him, however, and 
he was shamefully ignored at James- 
town, until death stared the whole 
colony in the face. Then it was 

that Captain John Smith earned the 
name oi th^^. "Father of Virginia." 

He established trade with the In- 
dians, built houses, and set the idle to 
work cutting a cargo of wainscot and 
clapboards to be exchanged in Eng- 
land for food. By his own industry 
and courage he inspired all with new 
hope. He led an expedition in search of the Pacific 
Ocean, was seized by the Indians, and had many adven- 
tures during his captivity. He showed the ignorant na- 
tives his pocket com^aiis, and explained, as well as he 
could, that the earth was round, and that the sun "did 
chase right about the earth continually." He whittled 
dolls for the pappooses, and made himself so popular 
that he went about for several weeks clad in raccoon 
skins as a badge of royalty; but for all that he was 
doomed to death until rescued by the gentle Pocahontas, The gentle 
daughter of the chief, Powhatan. He returned to the col- ""^ °"'^ 
ony laden with corn just in time to prevent the survivors 
from sailing away to Europe. Smith contir.ued to explore 




30 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Captain Newport the coast, always looking for a passage to India, and 

brings more colonists i . .1 1 1 . -i , 

kept the colony busy until more settlers came, under 
Captain Newport/ 

The newcomers brought hindrance instead of help. 
They washed the sands of the river for gold while they 
ate up the stores. More colonists came, under Sir 
Thomas Gates and Sir George Somers. They were 
mere adventurers, or convicts from the jails, or ruffians 
picked up on the streets of London. " When you send 
again, ' wrote Smith to the Company, "I entreat you 
rather send diggers of trees' roots well provided than a 
thousand such as we have." 

While Smith was president of the Colonial Council, his 
letters to the London Company were full of good advice, 
and his maps of the country correct. He was conceited 
and boastful; but he managed affairs so well that in two 
years the colony numbered over five hundred. About 
thirty acres were in corn, and many houses were built. 
The little commonwealth was prospering, when Smith 
was wounded by an explosion of gunpowder, and re- 
turned to England for medical aid. Then storms gath- 
ered about the settlement. A mutiny broke out. Some, 
turning pirates, sailed off with the ships. Indians killed 
others. Disease and famine stared the remainder in the 
face. By spring only sixty remained at Jamestown; 
these made pinnaces to return home, and were sailing 
down the James, when they met Lord Delaware with 
three well-manned ships. 

Meanwhile there had been changes in the London 
, ^ Company's grant. 

The second charter Two ycars after J-amestown was founded, a second 
Compa';7etends charter for South Virginia had been given by King James. 

the grant from "sea 

to sea " 



1609 
Smith returns to 
England 

1609-10 
The starving time 



'Read Eggleston's "Beginners of a Nation." 



OLDEST ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA 



31 



The territory was increased so that the company 
owned all the land two hundred miles north and two 
hundred miles south of Old Point Comfort, "stretching 
from sea to sea, west and northwest." 

The powers vested in the king were transferred to a 
supreme council chosen by the shareholders themselves. 

Lord Delaware was made governor for life by the 
council, and when he came to Jamestown, he brought 
liveried servants with him, and lived in grand style. He 
was kind, yet firm, and began each day with services in 
the little church, which was garlanded with wild flowers. 

When ill health forced Lord Delaware to return home. 
Sir Thomas Dale became the governor of South Vir- 
ginia. More immigrants came over, bringing cattle, and 
implements for all kinds of labor. The newcomers were 
for the most part criminals from the jails, and it was 
necessary to make very severe laws to control them. 
Martial law was set up, and the worst of the men were 
hanged without mercy. 

Thus far, the colonists had eaten from the " common 
kettle ;" that is, they had held their lands in common. 
Sir Thomas gave each man a few acres for his own 
orchard and garden, and required of each a tax of 
two barrels and a half of corn for the public granary. 
Thus the Virginians became freeholders, and began to 
work in earnest. 

When they found that tobacco was in demand in 
England, they cultivated it more and more until its 
green leaves were everywhere, even in the public 
squares, and along the streets of the town. Thrifty 
tenants on English estates heard of the wonderful profits 
in tobacco, and sailed to Virginia to secure plantations. 
So that eleven years from the founding of Jamestown 
there were four thousand settlers in South Virginia. 



1610 

Lord Delaware the 
first governor of 
Virginia 



Sir Thomas Dale 
introduces 
martial law 




The Virginians 
become freeholders 



The cultivation of 
tobacco 



i6i8 

Four thousand 
settlers in South 
Virginia 



32 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Indented servants 



1619 
Negro slaves 



1620 

Increased immigra- 
tion to Virginia 



Most of the work was done by indented servants. 
These were unfortunate men and boys from the prisons 
and streets of London, who were hired out until the cost 
of passage had been paid. In 161 9 a Dutch man-of- 
war sailed up the James with twenty negroes to sell in 
exchange for tobacco. Thus began in the English colo- 
nies that great African shadow which was one day to 
threaten the welfare of the whole United 
States. 

Meantime Powhatan, chief of forty In- 
dian clans, who dwelt near the site of Rich- 
mond, was invested with a crown as a 
vassal of King James. Then his 
beautiful daughter, Pocahontas, 
was baptized, and married to John 
Rolfe. These events helped ce- 
ment friendship with the natives; 
but the marriage displeased King 
James. He said it was a bold 
act for a commoner to wed a 
princess of royal blood. He 
feared Rolfe might set up claims 
to Virginia. When the dusky bride 
went to London, she was received at 
court, and treated with much respect. 

Peace with the Indians and profit from the tobacco 
crops caused still greater immigration to the " empire of 
Powhatan." In one year over twelve hundred persons 
landed in Jamestown. Among them were many agree- 
able young women. Now, there had been very few 
wives in Jamestown, and the desire for homes was so 
great that much rivalry was incurred in courting these 
new arrivals. It is said that it was often so impossible 
for a gentle Virginia maid to refuse her suitors that she 




POCAHONTAS 



OLDEST ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA 33 

would promise herself to more than one. This caused The first courtships 
bitter disputes. In the end the governor was forced to 
issue a proclamation that ' ' what woman soever should 
use any word or speech tending to a contract of marriage 
to two several persons at one time should undergo cor- 
poral punishment or be fined (if a person of quality)." 

While this law was probably necessary, there were 
many others which were too severe. Martial law became The freemen 
intolerable to the thrifty freemen. They had expected '^'"'"'"^ p"""'"^" 
to exercise all the political rights enjoyed in the mother 
country. 

In spite of oppressive kings, who tried to restrict their 
liberties, the towns and counties of England elected 
their own representatives to sit in the House of Com- 
mons to help make the laws, and neither the king nor 
the lords could put a tax on the people without their 
consent. Virginians declared they should enjoy the 
privileges of English subjects. 

The London Company had now a thousand members, 
among them some of the richest and most powerful men London company 
in England, who voted to repeal the cruel martial laws 
of Virginia. 

Then, that the planters "might have a hande in the 
governing of themselves, " it was granted that a ' ' general 
assemblie shoulde be helde yearly once, whereat were to 
be present the governor and councill with two burgesses 
from each plantation, freely to be elected by the inhab- 
itants thereof; this assemblie to have power to make 
and ordaine whatsoever laws and orders shoulde by them 
be thought good and profitable for their subsistance. " 

Twenty-two delegates from eleven plantations, or 
"boroughs," assembled in the little church at James- 
town with Governor Yeardley and his council. One of 
the burgesses was the great-grandfather of Thomas 



repeals the 
martial law 



34 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1619 
The House of 
Burgesses meets 
at Jamestown 

'July 30) 



Trial by jury, the 
Church of England 
confirmed, and 
measures taken to 
found a university 



Free homes in 
Virginia attract a 
better class of 
settlers 



Jefferson, who, more than a hundred and fifty years later 
on, wrote the Declaration of Independence for the whole 
American people. 

This House of Burgesses gave trial by jury, confirmed 
the Church of England as the church of Virginia, and 
compelled attendance at its services. They adopted 
measures toward erecting a university to educate the 
youth, and enacted many good laws. 

Now for several years the wits in the coffee houses 
and the playwrights in the theaters of London had made 
jests of the Virginians. "Why, man," said one, "all 
their dripping pans are pure gold, and as for rubies and 
diamonds, they go forth on holidays and gather 'em in 
by the seashore to hang on their children's coats and 
stick in their children's caps as commonly as our own 
children wear groats with holes in 'em." 

It was very true that rumors of gold mines had brought 
most of the earlier settlers to Virginia. But rumors of 
gold were no longer necessary to induce people to cross 
the sea. The hope of winning free homes of their own 
attracted younger sons of noble families, and sturdy 
farmers, the yeomen of England, who had always rented 
land instead of owning it ; and thus men of thrift and 
intelligence took the place of bold adventurers. There 
was peace and plenty in the reed-thatched huts of James- 
town, and plantations spread out for miles on both sides 
of the James River. 

The king quarrelled with the London Company because 
its members opposed some of his tyrannical acts in 
Parliament. He grew jealous of their prosperity, and 
declared "if they kept on declaring their right to trans- 
port the king's subjects to Virginia, they might in time 
depopulate the realm, and transfer the whole English 
nation to the dominion of the company." He brought 



OLDEST ENGLISH SETTLEMENT IN AMERICA 35 

against the corporation the charge of mismanagement. ^^^4 

The timid courts sided with the king, and the charter of The London 
the company was taken away. When the royal com- jJ'^hrnL"^" 
missioners demanded the colonial records of the Vir- 
ginians, they refused to surrender them ; and when the 
clerk gave them up for a bribe, the burgesses stood him 
in the pillory, and cut off an ear for it. 

Virginia became a royal province. King James died Virginia becomes a 
before he had completed a new set of laws for the ^°^^ province 
colony. His successor, Charles I, was even more tyran- ^^ 

nical than his father, but he was so busy with affairs in charies i 
England that he contented himself with sending a royal 
governor to Virginia; and the House of Burgesses con- 
tinued to sit annually and make its own laws. 



ascends the throne 



CHAPTER V 

THE CAVALIERS 
1625-1700 



It was plain that Charles would abolish the Assembly King chartes 
of Virginia if he ever had the time; for he soon dissolved '^'^^°'''" Pa^hament 
Parliament, and tried to manage his kingdom alone. 

When he found that he could not force taxes from his 
British subjects without the House of Commons, he 
summoned Parliament to meet again. After the Com- 
moners assembled, they would not adjourn, and held a 1640-16';^ 
" Long Parliament " for more than twelve years. Two The "Long 
parties were formed in England, the Cavaliers, who wore 
long curling locks, and the Puritans, or " Roundheads," 
as they were sometimes called from the way they cropped 
off their hair. 



36 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Cavaliers and 
Roundheads 



1649 
Charles I beheaded 



1648 
Trade on the James 



The Cavaliers 



The " Old 
Dominion " 

1660 
Charles II ascends 
the throne 



There was a bitter struggle between the Cavaliers, who 
were friends of the king, and the Roundheads, who 
were his enemies. 

At last. Parliament found Charles I guilty of treason. 
He was beheaded. England became a protectorate 
with Oliver Cromwell, the leader of the Roundheads, as 
protector. 

While these exciting events were taking place in the 
motherland, the Virginians continued to prosper. 

One Christmas day there were twelve merchant ships 
from England, twelve from Holland, and seven from the 
colonies of North Virginia trading in the James. 

Many Cavaliers, fleeing from the persecution of Crom- 
well, were made welcome in South Virginia. Among 
them were the ancestors of George Washington and 
other famous Americans. 

They bought large estates, and laid out plantations 
along the beautiful rivers. More elegance crept into 
society with the coming of these courtiers. In gold- 
laced coats they sailed in barges to visit their neighbors, 
or cantered across country, following the hounds; they 
introduced cockfighting, and dueling with pistols and 
swords, after the English fashion. They even hoped 
that young Prince Charles would one day land at James- 
town to proclaim himself king of Virginia; and after 
Charles became king of England, he caused the arms of 
Virginia to be quartered with those of England, Scot- 
land, and Ireland. 

The loyal province was called the "Old Dominion," 
and even to-day this name is sometimes used for Vir- 
ginia. 

The Cavaliers rejoiced greatly, when, at the downfall 
of the Cromwells, Charles II was restored to his own. 
But he soon rewarded their devotion by depriving 



THE CAVALIERS 37 

them o{ their privileges, and dividing up their land 
among court favorites, as if it were a barren waste. 

While the anger of the people at this kingly folly was 
at its height, Indians fell upon the settlements, massa- 
cring and carrying many captives away. 

Governor Berkeley did not call his militia out to attack Governor Berkeley 
the dusky foes, and was accused of allowing the mas- the" eopie"^" ° 
sacre rather than spoil his fur trade. But the real 
reason of his hesitation to call for military aid was his 
fear that, when the troops had conquered the Indians, 
they might turn their arms against him and his friends. 

By this time three distinct classes of people lived in The planters, the 

... , . , ,j , slaves, and the 

Virginia ; the aristocrats, or large land owners, the .. poor whites •• 
negro slaves, and the "poor whites." The negroes 
numbered almost a thousand, and were hurried more 
and more into market by the Royal African Company 
of which the king himself was a member. Sometimes 
Governor Berkeley feared an uprising of the negroes. 
Yet it was the "poor whites" that he feared most. 
Many of the poor whites had been indented servants, indented servants 
These, as we have seen, were mostly men from the prisons, 
or very needy persons who worked out the cost of their 
passage ; but it was such a profitable business to send 
indented servants to Virginia that the young and friend- 
less were often stolen and stowed away in the holds of 
the west-bound ships. The terror of such a fate became 
so great among the poorer classes of England that at 
one time forty children fled from a town, and hid till the 
ships had left port. Wicked judges even disgraced the 
courts by convicting innocent persons, and selling them 
like merchandise. After an indented servant finished 
his term of labor, he became & freeman ; but there was 
no place for him in Virginia. The land was already 
laid out in plantations. He was too proud to work in 



38 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Nathaniel Bacon 



1676 

Bacon leads the 
people against 
the Indians 



The freemen elect 
Bacon to the House 
of Burgesses 



the fields by the side of the slaves, so he built a rude 
cabin on the outskirts of some plantation, and lived 
apart with his family. 

The climate was mild. There were oysters in the 
creeks, wild game in the woods, and fish in the rivers. 
And because they could live with very little labor the 
most of these outcasts were shiftless and contented. 
Governor Berkeley wished to keep them ignorant that 
they might be satisfied with their humble station. 

" I thank God there are no free schools nor printing, " 
he said, "and I hope we will not have them these 
hundred years." 

Some intelligent "poor whites," however, who had 
once owned land and had been robbed of it by the king's 
favorites, were unhappy and restless. 

After a time they found a leader. Young Nathaniel 
Bacon, a rich English planter, took up their cause. He 
was a bold and eloquent patriot, and, as a member of 
the council, did the oppressed freemen much service. 

So it came about that when Governor Berkeley, in 
his fear of a popular uprising, refused to call out the 
people to punish the Indians, they called themselves out. 
and chose Nathaniel Bacon their captain. 

Right gallantly Bacon led his band, and routed the 
red men completely. The governor deemed the young 
leader a rebel, and sent troops against him, and refused 
to allow him to sit as a member of the Council. 

Then the freemen elected Bacon to the House of 
Burgesses, where he spoke boldly against the king's 
favorites. • ' How have those in authority obtained 
their estates.'" he cried. "Have they not devoured 
the common treasury } What schools of learning have 
they promoted.' What have they done to break the 
chain of servitude that has so long galled your necks .' " 



THE CAVALIERS 



39 



The people's champion soon won the Assembly to his 
views. They elected him commander of the army, 
repealed unjust laws, and began many needed reforms. 
This was just one hundred years before the declaration 
of independence at Philadelphia. 

At last, Berkeley and his favorites were driven from Bacon's rebellion 
Jamestown. When there seemed no other way to break The burning of 
up his rule, some patriots set fire to their own houses, J^""^^*""^" 
and the first English village in America was 
burned to the ground. A crumbling tower 
is all that now remains to mark the site of 
old Jamestown. Williamsburg became the 
capital of Virginia. 

Soon after this rebellion Nathaniel Bacon 
died of a fever, and the people had no 
leader. Their property was confiscated. 
Some of the best men of the colony were 
put to death. Berkeley was summoned to 
England to account for his cruelty to the 
insurgents; but he was succeeded by other 
governors who were very little better. 

After a time almost all of the Bacon 
repealed. Only the landholders could vote, and the 
disfranchised class became more and more humble. 

At the close of the seventeenth century we found Vir- 
ginia still a royal province. Some one has called it 
"Old England in the woods." 

The great houses on each plantation became the 
centers of hospitality. 

The smiling lady of the manor, in huge ruff and rust- 
ling taffeta, freely gave the best in the larder to any 
passing guest. There were corn cakes and bacon and 
strong ale or wine in abundance, and no one went hun- 
gry from the door. The king's governor, in scarlet and 




RUINS OF JAMESTOWN 

laws were Repeal of the 
Bacon laws 



"Old England ia 
the woods " 



40 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



gold, sat in the church of WilHamsburg, surrounded by 
his council. Before him were grouped the burgesses 
who kept on their hats, after the fashion of the English 
House of Commons, and stoutly insisted on their rights. 
There was much wrangling over privileges. And as 
the years went by, the freedom of debate in the Virginia 
House of Burgesses created orators and statesmen whose 
names have become famous in history.* 




COLONIAL MANSION IN THE SOUTH 



CHAPTER VI 



The Plymouth 
Company and 
North Virginia 



THE PLYMOUTH COMPANY'S GRANT 
1606-1620 

While the London Company was planting a colony in 
the south half of Virginia, and developing it into a com- 
monwealth under the eye and scepter of the reigning 
monarchs of England, the Plymouth Company, who 
owned the north half, had not been idle. 

This company was mostly made up of the gentry and 

^Read Doyle's " Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas." 



THE PLYMOUTH COMPANY S GRANT 4 1 

rich merchants of Plymouth and Bristol, with Sir John sirjohn Popham 

Popham, lord chief justice of England, as president. 

Long before the charter for North Virginia was given The fisheries in 

to the Plymouth Company, the fisheries had been sue- North Virginia 

cessfully carried on there. Intrepid mariners from all 

over Europe hurried to be on the coast of Newfoundland 

and Maine by Christmas. They erected stages for curing 

the fish, and salted, dried, and packed them, to return 

home in autumn with cargoes which brought vast 

returns. 

1602 

Bartholomew Gosnold steered due west by the com- Bartholomew 
pass, and landed at a cape so beset with fish that he ^°'"°'^ 
called it Cape Cod. He explored Martha's Vineyard, and, 
erecting a fort on Cuttyhunk Island, set-up trade with 
the Indians. After a few months Gosnold reached Eng- 
land with a heavy load of furs and sassafras. This 
aroused anew the interest in America, and, soon after 
receiving its charter for North Virginia, the Plymouth 
Company sent out two shiploads to colonize the country. , 

The settlers landed near the mouth of the Kennebec The settlement ob 
River. They struggled through an intensely cold winter ' ^ ^°"^ ^'^ 
only to sail away leaving a fort and fifty empty huts 
behind. ^^^^ 

Then Captain John Smith, who had recovered from john Smith and 
the wound received at Jamestown in service of the Lon- 
don Company, set out from Plymouth on a whaling voy- 
age. There were two ships in this expedition, one in 
command of Captain Smith and the other of Thomas 
Hunt. 

Smith explored the coast from the Penobscot to Cape 
Cod. He drew a map from point to point, and rowed 
up a broad river, which he named the Charles, after the 
young prince of that name. He called one of the har- North Virginia 
bors Plymouth, and named all the region New England, na-^d New England 



42 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Hunt kidnaps 
Indians from 
Cape Cod 



The French 
massacred near 
Massachusetts Bay 



The plague among 
the Indians of 
New England 



The harbors of New 
England waiting for 
the white men 



Now while Captain Smith was serving his company hy 
noting all the places where the merchant ships might 
anchor, and jotting down locations for the cities of the 
future, Captain Hunt was serving them in a very differ- 
ent way. He filled his vessel with whale blubber and 
furs, and then, to make his voyage still more profitable, 
kidnapped several Indians from Cape Cod to sell as 
slaves in the markets of Spain. The friends who fol- 
lowed the ship in canoes to rescue the unhappy prisoners 
received a volley of shot, and returned to the shore vow- 
ing vengeance on the palefaces. 

And when two French fishing smacks came sailing 
into Massachusetts Bay, how could the poor Indians 
know that they were not the English in search of more 
slaves ? They set upon the Frenchmen, and massacred 
all but five, who were held in wretched bondage, and 
sent from one sachem to another to perform the most 
degrading labor. 

A very short time after the massacre a terrible plague 
swept over the country, and thousands of Indians died, 
from Narragansett Bay to the Penobscot River. 

The few surviving warriors believed the plague was a 
punishment for the murder of the Frenchmen. Fear 
made them harmless, and the fair harbors of New England 
lay ready to receive the white men from the crowded 
cities of Europe. 

Meanwhile the maps and pamphlets of Captain Smith 
were scattered throughout England. ' ' Of all the four 
parts of the world I have seen," he said, "I would 
rather live in New England than anywhere else," and 
he showed how the French and the Dutch were making 
more money with fish and furs than the Spaniards with 
their mines in Mexico. 

Fishing fleets came more and more to New England, 



THE PLYMOUTH COMPANY S GRANT 43 

until the Plymouth Company, who claimed the country, The fishermen off 
appealed to the king to forbid fishing without their per- ^„\']^,f"^|^h the 

mission. Plymouth Company 

But the busy fishermen said the sea was free, and one 
might as well try to keep them from breathing air, or 
drinking water, as from taking draughts of fish from the 
boundless waters of the New England bays. Many 
fishermen became merchants, and were getting so rich a "codfish 
that they threatened to create a "codfish aristocracy," th'reat'e'^^ed 
which the gentry declared would soon undermine the 
very foundations of polite society. 

Since the Plymouth Company could not secure the 
monopoly of the American trade, they delayed planting 
permanent colonies. 

Yet a settlement was soon made in New England 1620 

without the consent of king or company. 

There had long been trouble in England about relig- 
ious observances. Some people thought there was too 
much ceremony in worship, and these were called Puri- The Puritans 
tans ^ because they said they wished to purify the church '" °^ *° 
creed. 

Queen Elizabeth wanted all her subjects to think 
exactly alike on religious subjects, and persecuted those 
in her kingdom who would not conform to the rules of 
the established church. But the number of Puritans 
increased until they became very powerful in wealth and 
social position. 

When King James I came to the throne, the Puritans Kingjamesat 
hoped to have more freedom in worship. Some of the wurthe"puritons 
most honored among them met His Majesty at Hampton 
Court with a petition for reforms in the church. But 
they found that James was more tyrannical than Eliza- 



'' Read Eggleston's " Beginners of a Nation." 



44 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



beth had been. He listened to what they said with 
impatience, and, in the end, told them to " awaie with 
theyre snyvelings, " and declared he would make them 
conform to his church or " harry them out of the land, 
or else worse." 

A little congregation of Puritans was formed at 
Scrooby, in the north of England. They were called 
Separatists because they had separated entirely from 
the Church of England. They were much persecuted; 
but when they attempted to seek homes elsewhere, 
James would not let them go, and kept all the ports 
guarded by the police. The selfish king knew very well 
that they were among the most industrious and intelli- 
gent subjects in his realm. 



CHAPTER VII 



THE PILGRIMS 



1609-1625 



1608 

The Pilgrims 
at Leyden 



PD many trials, a band of Separatists 
escaped to Holland, and because 
they moved about from place to 
place they were called Pilgrims. 

Finally they settled in Leyden, 

where they bought a tract of land, 

and built a church and homes for 

their families. There was much 

laughing in London about the "pinched fanatics of 

Leyden," but the colony increased continually. 

Young men from the great universities of Cambridge 




THE PILGRIMS 



45 



and Oxford, many from the landed gentry, and even a 
few from the nobihty came to Leyden. 

At first, the Pilgrims were contented in the new home; xhePiigHms 
but after a time they saw their children learning the L^^den "'^"^ '° 
Dutch language and customs, and their boys joining the 
Dutch army or going off on Dutch ships to earn their 
livelihood. It grieved them to feel that the traditions 
of Old England would soon be forgotten. Besides, 
crowded little Holland could not well give employment 
for all. Even her own thrifty burghers were founding 
colonies in America. 

The Pilgrims began to cast about where they should The Pilgrims decide 

r I ^T->i 1 -1 r . 1 • T^ . 1 to seek a home in 

go tor new homes. 1 hey heard from their Dutch America 
friends about the beautiful coast of 
what is now New Jersey, and they 
obtained permission from the Lon- 
don Company to settle there. Some 
English merchants consented to 
loan money for the voyage, but 
the terms were hard, for an 
enterprise prompted by re- 
ligion instead of trade did M^ 
not seem very promising. 

In 1620 some of the 
wealthiest Pilgrims sold what 
they had, and put all the funds together to secure two ^^^^ 

ships. In July of that year as many as could boarded the I'ne speedwell -,ss\s 
Speedwell, and sailed from Delfshaven to Southampton 
to join the Mayflower. Those who remained behind 
promised with tears and prayers to join .the colony 
later on. 

Soon after the two ships started from port, the Speed- 
well sprung a leak. Both put back to shore, and, in the The voyage of 
end, the Mayflower sailed away alone with ninety-eight *^^ ■'^r^xfl''^^ 




THE MAYFLOWER 



46 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



nation, that he might 
send choice grain 
into the wilderness " 



passengers.^ The leaders were Elder Brewster, William 
Bradford, John Carver, and Captain Miles Standish. 
But almost every Pilgrim was worthy to be a leader. 
God sifted a whole Some one has said, " God sifted a whole nation that he 
might send choice grain into the wilderness." It was 
only the bravest and best who had been willing to leave 
England for Holland, and now only the most steadfast 
of those faced the terrors of the ocean. After a stormy 
voyage of nine weeks the ship was driven to the shore 
of Cape Cod.^ 

■ This was several hundred miles north of New Jersey, 
for which they had started. The country belonged to 
the Plymouth Company, but, as the bay was beautiful, 
the weary voyagers concluded to settle there, and obtain 
a charter from that company later on. 

Since the patent they held from the London Company 
was useless, they drew up a compact in the cabin of tlie 
Mayflower, declaring loyalty to the king, and pledging 
to enact just and equal laws which they would obey 
"with all due submission." The compact was signed 
by forty-one of the principal men, and the wealthy John 
Carver was elected governor. 

Captain Miles Standish, WiUiam Bradford, and a few 
others soon set out in a boat to explore the coast. They 
found no Indians and only brought back a little Indian 
corn, dug from a pit under the snow. Then Governor 
Carver and a party made explorations, and while ashore 
they were attacked by some Indians. They escaped to 
their ship, steered southwest, and, in the teeth of a 
storm, were driven into a safe harbor on the west side of 



The compact is 
signed, and John 
Carver elected 
governor 



1 See " Yearbook of the Society of Mayflower Descendants " (1897). 

^"The Journal of the Voyage," written by William Bradford, was 
secured in 1897, by courtesy of Great Britain, and placed in the archives of 
the Statehouse at Boston. 



THE PILGRIMS 47 

the bay. On Monday, December 21, 1620, they landed The landing of the 
on the spot called Plymouth on John Smith's map. pl^^^'^thRock 
They also called the place Plymouth in memory of the (December 21) 
port in England from which they had sailed. Thus, 
thirteen years after Jamestown was founded by the Cava- 
liers in Virginia, Plymouth was founded by the Pilgrims 
in New England.^ 

With toil and suffering the Pilgrims built one large 
house for common use. The boats were few to disem- The first winter 
bark from the ship, and the cold was so severe that the 
wet clothes of the men looked like shining armor. 
At length they had all landed; and then began a grim 
struggle with Death, which is more cruel than any king. 

Exposure and poor food soon brought on disease. 
Before winter was over half of the colony had per- 
ished. The living buried the dead ; but they kept 
their courage alive, and were so strong in their faith 
that this was the promised land that in the spring, when 
the Mayfloiver sailed back to England, not one Pilgrim 

was on board the vessel. , 

1621 

They obtained a charter from the Council for New The grant of land 
England, which had succeeded the Plymouth Company, J^^NlwEngrand 
making them a grant of land between latitudes 40^ and 
48° stretching from "sea to sea," and allowing them the 
privilege of framing their own laws and electing their 
own officers. 

They made peace with the Indians, who taught them 
how to plant corn and shoot game, and they soon had 
enough to eat. 

The Pilgrims, like the Cavaliers, first began to cultivate 
the fields in common. But they, too, found that a man 
worked better when he worked for himself, and each 




* A boulder of granite on which the Pilgrims stepped became famous as 
Plymouth Rock. Read Webster's "Plymouth Oration." 



48 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1621 

William Bradford 
elected governor 



The dread of attack 
from the Indiatis 



1623 
The settlement 
at Weymouth 



man was soon given his own plot of ground to culti- 
vate. 

When Governor Carver died, William Bradford, who 
had been a farmer in England, and a dyer of wool in 
Holland, was elected governor. He was the first of a 
long line of commoners who have been chosen for high 
places by the American people on account of their ster- 
ling worth of mind and character. 

Although treaties of peace were made with many Indian 
chiefs, there was always fear of an attack from the red 

men. The town of Plym- 
outh was enclosed by a 
palisade fence, and gates 
that were shut at night, 
and the little church on 
the hill was guarded with 
cannon. When it was 
time to go to meeting, a 
line was formed in front 
of the house of Captain 
Standish; the musketeers 
marched in front; then 
came Governor Bradford, 
Elder Brewster, and Captain Miles Standish, followed 
by the few timid women who had survived the hardships 
of the first winter. 

In the third year very troublesome traders from Eng- 
land came, who made a settlement at Weymouth on 
Boston Bay, twenty-five miles north of Plymouth. 

They began to pay the Massachusetts Indians double 
prices for their corn, fish, and furs. But it was not long 
before they showed what rascals they were. They 
wasted their own provisions, and then robbed the Indians. 
When winter came on, they found themselves without 




FIRST CHURCH IN NEW ENGLAND 



THE PILGRIMS 49 

food or friends, and were forced to become servants to 
the Indians, cutting wood or fetching water for a cup 
of corn. The red men called them " paleface squaws, " 
and plotted to destroy Weymouth and march against 
Plymouth. 

Meanwhile, Edward Winslow, of Plymouth, had saved , 

the life of Massasoit, the chief of a friendly tribe, and piots of the indiar 
the grateful warrior revealed the plot against the settle- 
ments. Then Captain Miles Standish with eight picked captain Miles 
men sailed to Weymouth, routed the Indians, and carried Standish and his 

•' ' ' eight picked men 

the heads of their ringleaders home on a pole. The 
Massachusetts tribe never recovered from this defeat; 
and treaties of peace were renewed with other neigh- 
boring tribes. 

Soon after the trouble at Weymouth, Thomas Morton, Thomas Morton 
a young lawyer of fine family, and some of his boon com- ^^ ^*"''y'n°"°' 
panions crossed the sea to get all the enjoyment they 
could out of the New World, and at the same time make 
their fortunes in the fur trade. They built cabins at 
Mount Wallaston, at the mouth of a winding stream 
which emptied into Boston Bay. To the south, in plain 
view from the hills, stood the lonely blockhouse of 
Weymouth. 

But these young fellows proceeded to live in an even 
more reckless way than the traders of Weymouth had 
done. They laughed gaily at the "brethren" of 
Plymouth, and declared that life was too short to spend 
so much time in praying and keeping the ten command- 
ments. 

They called their settlement " Merrymount. " They The setting up of 
cut down a giant pine tree for a Maypole, and when MerfmTutt^' 
they had set it up with much pomp, they drank rum 
till their heads were light, and then called in the Indians 
to help them drink more. They drew the dusky maid- 
4 



50 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Merrymount causes 
much trouble 



Captain Standish 
visits Merrymount 
with his eight 
picked men 



ens into a dance, and the whole company whirled about 
the Maypole in glee. The Pilgrims of Plymouth soon 
had reason to fear that worse things than these might 
happen. 

Morton and his friends, being anxious to make their 
fortunes as quickly as possible, sold the Indians all 
the rum they wanted. The post became the center of 
trade. The bay was full of canoes, laden with the furs 
of the otter, the marten, the black wolf, and other rare 
animals. But as rum was not bringing them money 
fast enough, they began to teach the Indians how to 
charge muskets and fire them. The warriors paid 
twenty times what the firearms were worth, and were 
soon roaming the woods, shooting at every object they 
met. 

The fishing settlements on the coast petitioned Plym- 
outh to help put down the troublesome neighbors. 
But when Governor Bradford sent a remonstrance to 
the traders, he was met with defiance. 

Then Captain Miles Standish, with his eight picked 
men, seized Morton, the "sachem" of Merrymount. 
and he was sent to England for trial. 




GOVERNOR CARVER'S CHAIR 



CHAPTER VIII 



THE PURITANS 



1628-1636 



in England 



Besides the Separatists, who had set up a church of 
their own, there were many people in England, called The Puritans 
Puritans, who did not wish to conform to all the cere- 
monies of the Established Church, yet could not make 
up their minds to separate from it. 

They were persecuted more and more by Archbishop 
Laud, who regulated matters by giving the 
king a list of the church-members. Those 
marked with "O" were orthodox, and 
those marked with "P" were Puritans. 
The " P's " were brought before com- 
missioners, and condemned to be brand- 
ed, or stood in the pillory, or have their 
ears cropped off. Very few ever escaped 
punishment who provoked the wrath of 
the archbishop. 

To avoid such tyranny, the Puritans 
resolved to seek homes in the New 
World, where they might worship as they pleased.^ 
They formed a company, and bought from the Council 
for New England a strip of land between the Charles 
and the Merrimac. The tract thus purchased was said 
by the terms of the grant to extend from ' ' sea to sea. " 
This included, of course, the region along the Hudson 
River where the Dutch had planted colonies; but the ^, „ . 

■^ ' The Puritans in 

Puritans knew nothing of that. They sent out small New England 




PILLORY 



1628 



^ Read John Fiske's " Beginnings of New England." 



I51J 



52 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1629 

The Massachusetts 
Bay Company 




JOHN WINTHROP 
1588-1649 



1630 
Governor John 
Winthrop brings a 
colpny to New 
England 



colonies which settled at Salem and Charlestown on 
Massachusetts Bay, with John Endicott as governor. 

Plymouth on Cape Cod Bay had set the example of 
this exodus to the New World. "As one small candle 
may light a thousand," said Governor Bradford, " so the 
light here hath shown to many," and he welcomed gladly 
the Christians of Massachusetts Bay. 

The Rev. Thomas Higginson wrote back from Salem 
to his friends: "A sup of New England air is better 
than a whole draught of Old England's ale." 

The Puritans soon enlarged their company, 
and called it the Massachusetts Bay Company. 
They asked Charles I for a patent to their land. 
The king, thinking this new company was for 
the fisheries, said, smiling, that " fishing was 
~ the apostle's own calling," and granted a 
liberal charter. They were to have a gov- 
ernor, a deputy governor, and a council 
of eighteen assistants, to be elected annually 
by themselves. They might make their own 
laws, and no place ivas mentioned where their 
7nee tings innst be held. 

Taking advantage of this omission in their charter, 
they quickly resolved to move their officers to America. 
They elected John Winthrop, of Groton Manor, governor, 
and that same year sent over six ships with over four 
hundred colonists to Salem. The following year, leav- 
ing wealth and high honors behind him, the noble Win- 
throp himself crossed the ocean with about a thousand 
more emigrants. 

They brought cattle, horses, plows, seeds, fruit-trees, 
and all needful things to develop a new country. They 
planted towns along Massachusetts Bay, and on a pen- 
insula of three low-browed hills, held to the coast by a 



THE PURITANS 53 

narrow neck of marshland, they laid out the capital city Boston settled and 
of Boston. A beacon was put on the highest hill for ™'' ^* e capita 
signals to the other towns, a fort was built on another, 
and a mill on the third. At the center of the town was 
the market-place, and a little church stood by the spring 
near the governor's house. 

There were many privations in the colony. Before Hunger, disease, 
the first winter was over, two hundred had died, and 
almost as many more had sailed back to England. 

Governor Winthrop was undismayed; and when 
springtime came, the hopes of all revived at the arrival 
of ships with provisions. The Puritans prospered 
greatly. Many of them were wealthy, and all were 
intelligent and industrious. They took the Bible as The Puritans make 
their law, and established the first Congregational ' '="°'''" ^""^ 
church in New England. Then, that they might keep 
all dissensions out of their midst, they declared that no 
man should be allowed to vote on public affairs who did 
not belong to the church. Only church-members were 
eligible to office, yet taxes were imposed on all for the 
support of the minister; and when some members of the 
Episcopal Church attempted to establish a congregation 
of their own, they were sent back to England. So it 
was really an aristocracy which the liberty-loving An aristocracy ot 
Puritans established, not of birth nor of wealth, but of "^^ '^'°° 
religion. 

Many who had belonged to the same neighborhood in 
Old England formed their own little settlements in New 
England. Soon there were so many towns clustered 
about the bay that each chose two delegates to meet in ^, 

Boston to help make laws for the common good. The The government oi 
governor's council were the upper house of the Legis- BaTcoionT'^ 
lature, and the delegates were the lower house. At first, 
the two houses sat together in a "General Court." 



54 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1642 



The Puritans make 
some severe laws 



Restraints put upon 
emigration from 
£ngland 



1634 
John Endicott and 
the English flag 



Roger Williams 
causes the Puritan 
colony much anxiety 



But it is said on one occasion a ludicrous contest came 
up between these two bodies about a stray pig. They 
took different sides on his porkship, which resulted in 
separate sittings. 

Some of their laws were quite as strict as those of Old 
England. For disrespect to the authorities, culprits 
were to be set in the bilboes, flogged, or have their ears 
cropped off. Indeed, it was a common saying among 
the king's friends that emigrants to Massachusetts had 
only exchanged the tyranny of the bishops for that of 
the "brethren." 

But the Puritans were very willing to abide by laws 
which they made themselves. They kept on coming to 
America until it began to seem that the best men and 
women of England would all cross the sea. The king 
declared there must be a stop to the craze, and that 
only serving-men might leave England without the 
permission of a commission appointed by the crown. 

The colony had many enemies at court. For much 
that was said or done in Massachusetts was reported to 
the king. And so the Puritans took great care not to 
give any offense. John Endicott, in a rage, cut off the 
cross of St. George from the English flag, but the mag- 
istrates censured him in public for the deed, and sent 
official letters to England explaining the matter. 

Young Roger Williams was so bold that he caused 
much anxiety. He wrote a paper in which he declared 
the king had no right to the land of the Indians, 
and to accept a patent from him was a sin. To prevent 
trouble over this, the magistrates sent agents to court to 
deny that they believed what Williams had said. 

This brilliant young preacher continued, however, to 
provoke disputes in the colonies. He wished public af- 
fairs to be kept separate from the church. He declared 



THE PURITANS 



55 



England 



it absurd that a man should be taxed to support a church 
he did not behave in, or be forced to worship where he 
did not wish to do so, or that only those magistrates schisms in tie 
should be elected who indorsed some particular religious 
creed. He said each man's conscience should be free, 
and that whether it was the Episcopal Church of Old Eng- 
land, the Congregational Church of New England, the 
Jewish Synagogue, or the Roman Catholic Church, every 
church should be allowed a place in the community. 

Roger Williams was only preaching what almost every- 
body believes to-day; but for such advanced views'there 
seemed nothing to do but to banish him. He was told 
by Governor Winthrop that the members of the Massa- 
chusetts Bay Company had come to America to create a 
society after their own model. Those might join them 
who could agree with them. Others must seek homes 
somewhere else. There was room enough for all in 
America. 



Roger William 
is banished 




PURITAN CRADLE 



CHAPTER IX 



1636 

Roger Williams 
founds Providence 




1633 
Plymouth colon}- 
builds Fort Windsor 
on the Connecticut 

1635 
John Winthrop, Jr., 
founds Saybrook 



1635 
Puritans from 
Massachusetts Bay 
at Wethersfield 
and Windsor 



THE FIVE COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 

Roger Williams went to Narragansett Bay, bought 
land from the Indians, and founded Providence. The town 
was soon noted for its freedom in thought and speech. 
Then Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, who was said' to be 
" hke Roger Wilhams, or worse," differed in behef from 
the magistrates of Boston, and founded settlements in 
Rhode Island. After a time the two colonies united 
under one government, called the Rhode Island and 
Providence Plantations. 

The Plymouth colony purchased land of the 
*y<5^^' Indians on the Connecticut River, and built 
'""" a fort at Windsor, a few miles above a Dutch 

fort at Hartford. A rivalry then began between the 
English and the Dutch for the fur trade. But when 
John Winthrop, Jr., of Boston, built the stout palisade 
of Saybrook, at the mouth of the Connecticut, the Dutch 
could not use the river, and soon moved away. 

About this time a great fleet brought over three thou- 
sand more Puritans from England. Because many of 
these did not like the rule that only church-members 
could vote, they did not wish to locate in Massachusetts 
Bay, and went to Wethersfield, which had just been 
founded by men from Dorchester, and to Windsor, 
where a colony frorfi Watertown had begun a settlement. 
At Newtown (now Cambridge), Mass., the min- 
ister was Thomas Hooker. He had stood in high honor 
in England; but Archbishop Laud wrote a "P" before 
his name, and he fled, first to Holland, and then to 
America. 

[56] 



THE FIVE COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 57 

When the eloquent divine found that over half of the 
men of Massachusetts had no vote in public affairs 
because they did not belong to the church, he was not 
pleased. He declared that every one should vote on ^^^^ 

matters of state, and he founded a town at Hartford Thomas Hooker 
where citizens might make laws to suit themselves. All 
these colonies on the Connecticut bought their lands 
of the Indians; but they had hardly set up the palisades 
about their rude huts when they began to be troubled 
with the red men. 

The Pequods on the east bank of the river massacred 
traders as they came up in their boats, and no man 
dared venture out of the towns alone. ^. 

Troops from the Connecticut towns and Boston sur- The Pequod war 
prised a Pequod fort, and put men, women, and children '" ^°""^'="*="' 
to death, so that of four hundred Indians only five 
escaped. The remnants of the tribe were taken pris- 
oners and divided as slaves among friendly tribes. It was 
a most cruel war; but peace followed for the valley of 
the Connecticut. Children might play among the butter- 
cups on the river's brink, and farmers cultivate their 
fields without fear. 

Meanwhile Puritan friends in England watched these 
colonies in the wilderness with increasing interest. They The Puritan friends 
cherished a letter from America " as a sacred script, or '" ^"^'"'"'^ 
as a writing from some holy prophet, and carried it many 
miles, where divers came to hear it read." Contmued 
persecution led them to believe that only the wide ocean 
could save them from the fury of the bishops, but the 
harbors were watched day and night to prevent their 
escape. 

It is said that a squadron of eight ships on the oiiver Cromweii 
Thames was preparing to set sail for America with ^"^john Hampden 
Oliver Cromwell and John Hampden on board when 



58 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1638 
New Haven 
founded by 
Theophilus Eaton 
and John Davenport 



1639 
The Constitution 
of Hartford 



" The Constitution 
of Connecticut 
marks the beginning 
of American 
democracy" 



The rebellion 
in England 



1630 
Governor Harry 
Vane introduces 
more ceremony into 
public affairs in the 
Massachusetts Bay 
colony 



constables prevented the vessels from leaving port, 
That same year, however, about three thousand Puritans 
managed to reach America. Many of these, under the 
leadership of Theophilus Eaton and John Davenport, 
founded the town of New Haven on the shore of Long 
Island Sound. There were several wealthy men in this 
colony, mostly from London, who built stately houses 
and handsome public buildings. They were as strict in 
their religious belief as the Puritans of Massachusetts. 
Only church-members could vote in civil affairs at New 
Haven. Other settlers followed these; they chose homes 
near by on the shores of the sound, and after a time 
united with the New Haven colony. 

In 1639 the towns on the Connecticut River met at 
Hartford, and drew up a constitution for the common- 
wealth of Connecticut. 

Every man, without regard to belief, could vote for 
the governor and council; each township had equal 
representation in the Assembly; free schools were estab- 
lished; indeed, the constitution of Connecticut was so 
liberal in all its provisions that it has been said to 
" mark ^ the beginning of American democracy." The 
New Haven colony did not unite with Connecticut for 
several years, chiefly because of religious differences. 

Meantime the Puritans in England were in open rebel- 
lion against the oppressions of King Charles I, and many 
in the colonies hastened back home to join in the strug- 
gle for liberty. 

Among these was Harry Vane, the son and heir of a 
royal secretary, who had forsaken the court of King 
Charles for the rude life of America. 

It pleased and flattered the colonists to have such a 
distinguished man among them. It was expected that 



* Read John Fiske's " Beginnings of New England." 



THE FIVE COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 59 

many men of rank would follow his example, and come 
to live in the colonies; and this they would undoubtedly 
have done if they had not soon found peace at home. 

Young Vane was zealous in the faith; but he could 
not easily bring himself to the rigid rules of the Puri- 
tans. Instead of the somber garb of the time, with its 
white Geneva bands and black coif, he wore "fair and 
feminine cuffs at the wrist," and long curling locks. He 
was elected governor of Massachusetts Bay, and when he 
came into office, there was a stricter show of state. 

Yet for all that, the Puritans loved the young patri- 
cian. They thought it a grand sight when the young 
governor, attended by four sergeants with halberds, 
stood in ancient English fashion beneath the spreading 
oak on Cambridge Common to announce to the freemen 
before him the purpose of their meeting. 

When young Vane left Boston Harbor for England, vanegoesto 
the whole city turned out to see him off. His presence ^£"1 crilw^r 
in the colony had aroused more love for ceremony in 
public affairs, and a few even talked of hereditary right 
to sit in the Council as in the House of Lords in Eng- 
land. But the people would not consent to restrict 
their rights, and made a law that the members of the 
Council should be chosen every year. 

The social war in England kept the Puritans at home; Emigration from 
and perhaps it was well that immigration to New Eng- ^"siand ceases 
land ceased when it did. No new elements were added 
for several years to disturb the natural growth and 
development of the little commonwealths. 

Within twenty-one years after the landing of the Pil- 
grims in the Mayflower there were more than twenty- 
six thousand English settlers in New England. The 
people were gathered into five independent provinces: The five provinces 
Plymouth, which had shown the way across the sea; " ^^ "^^° 



6o 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Colonial 
government in 
New England 



1635 

Harvard College 
tcunded at 
Cambridge 



Massachusetts Bay, the largest and richest of all; Rhode 
Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, and 
New Haven. 

Now none of these provinces, except Massachusetts 
Bay, had yet received a charter from the king; but in all 
of them the people in the small 
towns sent delegates to the capital 
to sit in a legislature with a 
governor and his council whom 
they themselves had elected. 

The Indian trails through the 
forests were widening into bridle 
paths, and there was much 
friendly communication between 
the provinces. 

Perhaps the greatest means 
of keeping them in touch with 
one another was Harvard College. The young men 
of the five provinces flocked to Cambridge, three mile? 
from Boston, to attend its lectures. People from 
all parts of New England helped to support Harvard 
College. If they could not send money, they sent but- 
ter, or corn, or peltries, rejoicing that "such a light of 
learning was set up in the wilderness." 





SEAL OF HARVARD 



CHAPTER X 



THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 




OUNDARY lines of the provinces 
were sometimes subjects of dis- 
pute, and some of the wisest men 
of New England discussed the need 
of a Court of Appeal to which the 
colonies might carry their differences for 
adjustment. Besides the troubles among The enemies of 
themselves about boundary lines, other ^"^ "^^" 
reasons were urged why the colonies of 
New England should form a confederacy. 
They were surrounded by many foes. 
There were the French on the north, who, The French on the 
after founding Quebec, had pushed their missions farther 
and farther west, until, long before the hymns of the Pil- 
grims rang out from the Mayflozvcr, the Jesuit fathers 
were chanting their prayers on the shores of the north- 
ern lakes.' 

Trading posts followed the missions. And at certain 
seasons of the year when French traders sent their ves- 
sels along the coast of Maine and New Hampshire, hun- 
dreds of Indian trappers carried their packs of furs to 
the waiting ships. They pitched their bark tents along 
the beautiful harbors, and after the dances, songs, and 
feasts were over, returned to their villages laden with 
French trinkets, hatchets, and guns. If trouble should 
come between the English and the French, these Indians 
would be sure to take sides with the French. 



* Read Parkman's "Pioneers of France in the New World." 



62 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



The Dutch on 
the Hudson 
1621 
The Dutch West 
India Company 




1638 
The Swedes on 
the Delaware 



Then there were the Dutch on the west, who had 
settled in America. Holland granted all of New Nether- 
lands to the Dutch West India Company who founded 
New Amsterdam (now New York), Fort Orange (now 
Albany), Fort Nassau (now Gloucester) on the Dela- 
ware, and other places. Peltry was so abundant that 
New Amsterdam chose the beaver for the crest of its 
seal, and at first all these Dutch towns were merely 
fur-trading stations. 

The West India Company allowed any one 
who, within four years, would bring fifty adult 
settlers to New Netherlands, the privilege of 
buying from the Indians a strip of land, sixteen 
miles long on one side, or eight miles long on 
both sides, of any navigable river, and the width 
of the land should be without limit. The pur- 
chasers, who brought the tenants, were called 
"patroons, " or lords of the manor. 
Van Rensselaer, a pearl merchant of Holland, chose 
his grant near the trading post of Fort Orange, and soon 
rich merchants and traders had laid off most of the 
Hudson valley into farms. ^ 

They employed masons, carpenters, clerks, and tailors, 
who helped build up towns to supply the needs of the 
farmers who rented their lands. 

Business was always brisk in New Netherlands. The 
jolly Dutchmen made friends with the Indians. They 
dandled the papooses, threw gaudy presents for the 
squaws into their bargains, and were fast monopolizing 
the fur trade as far east as the Connecticut River. 

On the south of New England were the Swedes. 
They had fulfilled a cherished plan of King Gustavus 



*Read Irving's '• Knickerbocker's History of New York." 



THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 63 

Adolphus to occupy the banks of the Delaware. They 

bought the land from the Indians, and named it New 

Sweden ; but the Dutch claimed their territory and the 

disputes of these two colonies were both loud and long 

until, a few years later, Peter Stuyvesant, the governor 1655 

of New Netherlands, annexed New Sweden to his 

province. 

All these colonies of the French, Dutch, and Swedes, 
who were so different from the Puritans in customs, 
religions, and laws, threatened to keep the New England 
colonies close to the sea, or drive them out of America.* 

Yet more to be feared than the French or the Dutch Theredmenof 
or the Swedes on their borders were the Indians in their ^^"^ England 
midst. The red men of New England belonged to the 
great Algonquin family, whose hunting grounds extended 
south along the Atlantic coast to the southern boundary 
of Virginia, west to the Mississippi, and north to far 
beyond the Great Lakes. 

The Abenakis along the harbors of Maine, and the 
Tarratines on the hills of New Hampshire were under 
the influence of the French. The Wampanoags of Cape 
Cod, the Narragansetts along the west shores of Narra- 
gansett Bay, and the Mohegans on the Connecticut, had 
all made treaties of peace ; but there was no telling how 
long the treaties would last. These nations were always 
quarreling with one another, and were jealous of the 
favors of the white men. 

From the very first there had been fear of attacks on 
the settlements. Once the firing of muskets at Water- 
town to scare a wolf away from a strayed calf caused 
alarm in Roxbury which spread to Boston, turning the 
whole population out of bed. "So in the morning," 



' Read Henry Cabot Lodge's " English Colonies." 



64 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



164.3 
The Federal 
Convention 



The charter of 
Rhode Island 



The United Colo- 
nies of New Eng- 
land 



The freemen make 
the laws of the 
confederacy 



concludes the chronicler, "the calf being found safe, 
the wolves affrighted, and our danger past, we went 
merrily to breakfast." But the next Court ordered that 
whoever fired muskets for such cause after watch was 
set, should pay a fine and be flogged. 

An Indian creeping through the outskirts of the forest 
at daybreak might be the signal for the coming of the 
whole band on the warpath. 

Thus with the French, the Dutch, the Swedes, and the 
Indians for foes, there seemed great need for the English 
settlements to unite for common defense. 

Accordingly, during May, 1643, commissioners from 
three provinces rode through the tangled forests to 
Boston to draw up articles of confederation with Mas- 
sachusetts Bay. The Rhode Island and Providence 
Plantations were not asked to join the league because 
of the troubles with Roger Williams, but the bold young 
preacher hastened to England that very year, and secured 
a charter from Parliament for Rhode Island. As for the 
fishing hamlets on the coast of Maine* and New Hamp- 
shire, they were not yet strong enough to be called prov- 
inces. And so, in 1643, only the four provinces of 
Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven 
joined together in a confederation, called "the United 
Colonies of New England." Two delegates from each 
colony formed a board to settle questions of interest 
common to all. 

Now the "plain people" had a voice in the laws 
of even this confederation. In each little town the 
inhabitants were summoned to a public meeting, where 
freemen had the right to speak and vote. This town 



^ In 1622, Maine and New Hampshire were granted by the Council for 
New England to Sir Ferdinando Gorges and John Mason. The settlements 
in both territories had placed themselves under the protection of Massachu- 
setts Bay. 



THE UNITED COLONIES OF NEW ENGLAND 6$ 

meeting elected commissioners to a General Court, at 
the capital town of the province. The General Court 
named the delegates to the Board of Commissioners at 
Boston. Thus the government of the United Colonies 
of New England was created by the people. It was the 
beginning, as we shall see, of a greater Confederacy 
which would unite thirteen colonies, and prepare the 
way for the United States of America. 

Surely the king and his bishops would resist such a 
blow as this at their authority! But when the federal 
union was ratified. Archbishop Laud was in prison, and 
Charles I was a fugitive beyond the gates of London. 

It was about this time, as we have seen in the study 
of the Virginia Colony, that the Long Parliament 
accused the king of treason. He had opposed the peo- , 

pie and raised taxes illegally. After a trial, Charles chariesiu 
was beheaded. Oliver Cromwell became Protector of ^^'^^^'^^'' 
England, and, being a Puritan himself, he was a friend 
to the Puritans of New England. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE PEOPLE OF NEW ENGLAND 

1643 
At the time of the confederacy, the people of New The people of 

England were of pure English stock. There were no timl^f"the"'^''''*^^ 
Scotch or Irish among them. They had come from all confederation 
the shires, or counties, of England, — from the moun- 
tains and lakes in the north and from the broad, level 
marshlands of the south; but the most of the New Eng- 
landers were from the eastern shires. 

It was these eastern shires that had first won the 
S 



66 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Free speech in 
free meeting 



The town meeting 



The town officers 



right of free speech in free meetings. The quaint old 
towns obtained charters from the earlier kings, which 
gave freemen the right of trial by jury, and protected 
their trade from toll; and although the king always 
appointed the chief magistrate of a town, each ward had 
its own merchant guild, and was governed by its own 
alderman, before whom freemen might talk to their 
hearts' content. 

This self-government was almost forgotten in Eng- 
land since tyrants had become kings; but the Puritan 
colonies in America renewed the rights of the charters. 

Each town became a tiny republic in itself. Nearly 
every shipload formed the center of a new common- 
wealth. 

A church was " gathered " by members who signed a 
covenant for worship. Then the town was incorporated 
and named, and a town meeting was organized. The 
citizens appointed a selectman who summoned the inhab- 
itants to a meeting "to know the town's mind." The 
meeting was generally held in the church, where, in the 
loft overhead, were the town's drums, muskets, and hal- 
berts, with the flag of England, which was borne through 
the streets on training days. The men sat with their 
hats on, as in the House of Commons. A moderator 
was elected to preside, and when he doubted a vote, he 
divided the polls by asking those who were for it, to go 
on the woman's side of the house, and those against it, 
on the men's side. 

From the magistrate, down to the lowest office, it was 
an honor to serve the town. The watchman cried out 
the hour and the weather, as he made his rounds in the 
night; the tax gatherer collected the fines, and the sheriff 
stood ready to punish those who failed to pay them; the 
tithing man kept his ten, or more, families in decent 



THE PEOPLE OF NEW ENGLAND 67 

observance of church and school, and the constable was 
always busy at a little of everything. 

There were few, if any, political distinctions between Poiuicai equality 
the freemen of New England. 

But there were social distinctions in these Puritan social inequality 
towns. Younger sons of the gentry, whose fathers lived 
on estates in England, and were in Parliament, and 
scholars from Cambridge, or Oxford, and shrewd lawyers 
from London, had joined the colonies. This class of 
citizens served as magistrates and judges, by vote of the 
people, and were made officers on training day. 

The most of the freemen, however, were industrious 
farmers and tradespeople; yet they differed from the 
same class in England, in that they were land owners. 

The farmers of New England almost always owned Contrast between 
the land they cultivated. Their children were in the EngianTandth^le 
public schools, side by side with those of the magistrates, °f New England 
and the sons who went to Harvard College, were wel- 
comed everywhere. 

Then there \yere the poor; but there were not many 
of these. It was a common saying that one might 
live in a Puritan town, year in, and year out, and not see 
a drunkard, or hear an oath, or meet a beggar. 

Social distinctions were most in evidence in the meet- in the meeting- 
inghouse. Here the congregations were seated accord- 
ing to family position. The men and women sat apart. 
First of all in dignity was the minister's family. Then 
came the magistrates, respected the more because they 
had been chosen in open meeting; and with them sat 
the gentry, while behind these were the ' ' good men " and 
"good wives, " who were the farmers, the mechanics, and 
the fisher folk. 

The minister looked down from the high pulpit upon 
the first benches, where the elders sat in state, facing 



68 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Puritan dress 



the congregation, and the deacons a step below. The 
men who faced the minister wore long jackets with a 
belt at the waist and loose trousers reaching only to the 
knee, where they were tied, and square-toed shoes with 
enormous buckles. Their hair was combed straight back 
and tied with black ribbon, or cropped short like that of 
the Roundheads in England. The women wore short 
gowns, stiff petticoats, and white aprons. The sleeves of 
the gowns were short, and long mittens came above the 
elbow. Their cloaks were short with hoods thrown back. 
The boys and girls sat in separate places, and were 

under the charge of a tithing 
man. 

When the long sermon was 
over, and the hymns were sung, 
and the prayers finished, there 
was visiting outside. The peo- 
ple had much to talk about. 
Announcements were tacked 
on the door of the meeting- 
house — intentions of marriage, 
notices of lost and found, and 

COLONIAL MANSION, NEW ENGLAND { U ^• 1 U i. i. M 

of whahng vessels about to sail. 
After meeting and of bountics offered for wolves; while over the door 

hung the trophies captured for bounties. Near the 
meetinghouse stood the stocks, the pillory, and the 
whipping-post, where practical lessons in punishment 
were given. 

Another place for gossip was the tavern — 

"Where village statesmen talked with looks profound. 
And news much older than their ale went round." 

Travelers, on foot or horse, through the blazed paths 
of the forests, or those coming by sea in sloops, sat 




The tavern 



THE PEOPLE OF NEW ENGLAND 



69 



about the sputtering logs in the fireplace and talked of 
the Long Parliament, and of how their old-time Gov- 
ernor Vane, now Sir Harry Vane, was leading reforms 
in the Commons. 

It was considered wicked to observe Christmas, or 
trim the houses with holly, or dance about the Maypole, 
as back in " merry England." 

There were more fast days than feast days in New Fast days and 
England. There were fasts to ward off pests in the ^*'^"'^s»vmgs 




TRAINING DAY IN OLDEN TIMES 

grain, and withering drouths, and killing frosts, and at- 
tacks from the Indians. But there were thanksgiving 
days for the blessings received ; and — 

"Those dined then who'd seldom dined before. 

And those who'd always dined, then dined the more." 

There were fishing parties when the fish came up the 
rivers from the sea; there were husking bees, quilting 
bees, log rollings, and strawberry and raspberry pick- 
ings among the rocky glens and pastures. 

On training day, men from sixteen to sixty years of 



^o 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Training days in 
the towns 



Life on the farm 



The sea becomes 
the highway of 
New England 



age were mustered for drill. The arms were muskets, 
swords, and pikes. Muskets had matchlocks, or flint- 
locks, and rests for taking aim. Pikes were ten feet 
long, and the tallest men were chosen to carry them. 
There was no regular uniform for these village soldiers. 
Some had corselets of steel and some thick wadded 
coats of cotton. Some wore beaver hats and some wore 
felt hats. 

"Put right hands to firelock!" "Put gun on left 
shoulder! " "Hoc!" shouted the captain as he drilled 
his men on the green. 

But fasts and feasts and training days were only inci- 
dents in the lives of the Puritans. There was always 
work to do. On the farms, the whole family began 
work at sunrise and ended it when candles were snuffed 
out at early bedtime. There were stones to be picked 
up, stumps to be grubbed, and fields to be fenced in and 
plowed. There was the little kitchen garden to tend, 
with its "truck," raised from seed brought from Old 
England, and the orchard to prune, with its apples, pears, 
and peaches, which, it was said, seemed to take on a 
more spicy flavor in this new soil. 

In some of the colonies it was the law that every 
family should plant flax and hemp, and that a certain 
amount of spinning should be done by the women. 

Fear of the Indians kept the New Englanders close 
to the shore. The sea became their highway. Every 
little port was filled with fishing and whaling smacks. 
Farmers built scows for carrying wood, and sloops for 
freighting it to market, and one and two masted craft 
to be used in the coasting trade. 

Governor Winthrop had brought with him Wilham 
Stephens, a shipwright, as skilled as any in all England. 
He built at Boston some vessels of four hundred tons, 



THE PEOPLE OF NEW ENGLAND 7I 

1643 

for trade with the West Indies and Europe; and, at the ship-buiiding 
time of the union of the colonies, Salem merchants had 
ships of "three hundred burthen.'' 

When one of the larger craft came sailing back to 
port, a whole town was on tiptoe waiting for the own- 
er's signals. There were joyful greetings after the long 
voyage, and a great gathering in the tavern to hear the 
news from foreign lands. 

Wampum, or beads made from periwinkle or clam Wampum, the 
shells, was the medium of business for many years after °""'^=*"°" °f "■^'^« 
the union. 

Wampum bought furs, fish, and venison from the 
Indians; these bought raw cotton and silver from the 
West Indies. The cotton and silver were then taken 
across the sea to exchange for the luxuries of Europe. 
And thus wampum was the foundation of trade in New 
England. Boston, Hartford, Plymouth, and the other 
capital towns grew apace. The thatched huts gave way 
to frame buildings with Elizabethan fronts and over- 
hanging gables; while here and there a brick or stone 
house became the dwelling of a magistrate or a rich and 
gouty merchant. 

Boston was the largest and most prosperous town Boston, the capUai 

.1 1 • nn • -i r i -11 -i city of the United 

m the colonies. To a visitor from a country village it colonies of 
seemed a splendid city. The streets were paved with New England 
cobblestones, and crowded with hackney coaches, sedan 
chairs, and four-horse shays, in which the gentry rode, 
with negro slaves for drivers. 

The gentry dressed in embroidered coats, satin waist- 
coats, silk hose, and wigs. Some, like Governor Win- 
throp, wore stiff ruffs, and others wore broad, flat collars. 
The ladies were gay in bright silks and gauzy scarfs, and 
put black patches on their cheeks to improve their 
beauty. 



England contrasted 



72 COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 

But a fine coach was often followed by flocks of sheep 
and oxcarts filled with cordwood or hay, and behind the 
simpering lady of fashion were rosy-cheeked farmers' 
1650 wives fetching baskets of butter and eggs to market. 

Virginia and New By thc middle of the seventeenth century, the English 

people, in the North as well as in the South, had become 
established in America. 

In both New England and Virginia they had learned 
to love their adopted country. They spoke the same 
language and claimed the same king. Yet, as we have 
seen, they formed two distinct commonwealths. 

Virginia was the land of the cavaliers, or aristocrats. 
New England that of the yeoman, or farmers and traders, 

Virginia was divided into vast plantations, the estate 
descending undivided to the eldest son. New England 
had few large estates, and at the death of the owners 
they were divided among his children. 

In Virginia, there were almost no towns, and hospi- 
tality was in the homes. In New England, there were 
already ninety towns, and travelers put up at the taverns. 

In Virginia, the indented servants, who were released 
from bondage, could find no work except that in the fields 
with the slaves, which they scorned to do. In New Eng- 
land, the same class always found plenty of work among 
their equals, and soon had farms of their own. 

In Virginia, the House of Burgesses was the meeting 
of wealthy planters who made whatever laws they could 
under the restraint of governors appointed by the king. 

In New England, the Legislatures met, with delegates 
in no way superior to those who had sent them, to con- 
sult with governors elected by the people themselves. 

In Virginia, there were no public schools. In New 
England there were schools for rich and poor alike in 
almost every village. 



THE PEOPLE OF NEW ENGLAND 73 

And thus we find two great types of social and politi- 
cal life in the English colonies of America : in the 
South, "Old England in the Woods;" in the North, "oid England in 
"New England by the Sea." Both Southern and E^X'ty'ih^" 
Northern colonies had negro slaves, and both were sur- sea" 
rounded by Indians. 

Thus the red, the white, and the black men dwelt 
together in the New World. 

What would the next two hundred years do for these The problem of 

, , 1 • J • , 1 three races 

three distinct races r 



CHAPTER XII 

TROUBLOUS TIMES IN NEW ENGLAND 

1660-1686 

1660 
The peace which the New England colonies enjoyed chariesiiis 

during the Protectorate of the Cromwells, closed with 1]°^^^^^^ 
the restoration of Charles II. The young king resolved 
to punish the members of Parliament who had brought 
his father's head to the block, and driven himself into 
exile. The colonies heard with dismay of the imprison- 
ment of Sir Harry Vane and others who had been their 
friends at court, and those who fled to New England 
from the royal displeasure were protected. 

When the king heard how the Puritans sympathized 
with his enemies, he began in various ways to restrict He restricts the 
their privileges. He took sides with the Quakers when ^^IH^^^ 
they made complaint of their treatment in Massa- 
chusetts. 1646 

The Quakers, or Friends, were a new religious sect. The Quaker church 

^ ' ° established m 

organized in England by George Fox, Many Quakers England 



74 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



The Quakers in 
New England 



Death penalty 
pronounced 
against them 



1661 

King Charles 
defends the 
Quakers 



Massachusetts 
incurs the special 
displeasure 
of the king 



1662 
The charter of 
Connecticut 
is granted 

1663 

The charter of 
Rhode Island 
confirmed 



came to America believing it their duty to preach the 
gospel to the Puritans. They gloried in punishments, 
and their zeal was so great that when ordered to leave 
the towns they refused to obey. 

When driven on board one vessel, they returned by 
another as soon as they could. The governor and coun- 
cil of Massachusetts were at their wits' end to know what 
to do with the Quakers. At last the law was enacted that 
those who returned after banishment should be put to 
death, and four were hanged on Boston Common.^ 

About the same time Charles sent a banished Quaker 
to Governor Endicott with a letter forbidding the court 
to inflict bodily punishment upon the Quakers. It was 
thought a great triumph for the sect when the banished 
man kept on his hat, while the governor removed his to 
receive the royal message. 

It displeased the king that the Church of England was 
not allowed to be established in Massachusetts, and that 
the British navigation laws were not obeyed at Boston. 
Enemies of Massachusetts told him that the colony 
would gladly throw off his authority altogether; that, 
when he was in exile, the magistrates had attempted to 
imprison a stranger they took for himself, and that the 
newly elected Governor Leverett had been an officer in 
Cromwell's army. 

Charles determined to chastise the unruly province of 
Massachusetts, and to court the favor of the other colo- 
nies. So when John Winthrop, Jr., bore to him, from 
the magistrates of Connecticut, a petition for a charter, 
his majesty gladly granted it. 

And when John Clarke asked confirmation of the 
charter which the Puritan Parliament had given to 
Rhode Island, he granted this favor also. 



1 Read Longfellow's "New England Tragedies." 



TROUBLOUS TIMES IN NEW ENGLAND 



75 



1665 
New Haven united 
to Connecticut 



1664 



Then, because New Haven was a close ally of Mas- 
sachusetts, and had received and protected Edward 
Whalley and William Goffe, two judges who had con- 
demned his father, he united that unwilling colony to 
Connecticut, and renewed the liberal charter he had 
given Connecticut three years before. 

Meanwhile, to strengthen himself still more in his 
authority over the prosperous colonies, King Charles The royai grLnt of 
granted to his brother, the Duke of York, all of New N-^-Neth- lands 

° ' 'to the Duke of 

Netherlands, which he claimed because of the discoveries York (March 12) 
of the Cabots. The young prince, paying no heed 
to the claims of the Dutch or the Swedes who oc 
cupied the country, sent a fleet to New Amster- 
dam to take possession of his province. 

As the ships sailed into the beautiful har- 
bor, Peter Stuyvesant, governor of New Neth- 
erlands, stood on a bastion of the fort, ready 
to touch off a cannon at the usurpers. 

The garrison, however, was so feeble, and 
the fort so unfit to hold out, that the burghers 
gathered about Stuyvesant, and urged him to 
submit. The stout old governor declared he would 
be carried out dead before he would surrender; but, in Peter stuyvesant 
the end, he agreed to capitulate. The English jack was 
run up the flagstaff of the fort, and the Dutch soldiers (August 29) 
embarked for Holland. 

That part of the province east of the Delaware be- New York; 
came New Jersey, and was divided into East and West ' <=J^'^^«y^ 
Jersey by Lord Berkeley and Sir George Carteret to 
whom the duke had given it. The north part of New 
Netherlands was called New York ; Fort Orange, Al- 
bany ; and New Amsterdam, New York City. Yet for 
many years the good Dutch burghers lived on in their 
own way in spite of political changes. 




PETER STUYVESANT 

1602-1682 



surrenders New 
Amsterdam 



1^ 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1674 

Sir Edmund Andros, 
governor of 
New York 



Andros at Saybrook 






Plotting of 
the Indians 



1616 
The visit of 
Pocahontas to 
London arouses 
interest in Indian 
missions 



The king had included in the grant to his brother all 
the land west of the Connecticut River; and soon after 
Sir Edmund Andros arrived as governor of New York, 
he crossed Long Island Sound to take control of the 
Connecticut militia. The king's flag was at the prow 
of his boat; but at Saybrook the English colors were also 
flying. Andros, who was met by the captain of the fort, 
began to read his commission. ' ' Connecticut has her 
charter signed by King Charles," said the captain; "in 
the name of His Majesty, leave ofT reading, or take the 

consequences." And when 
muskets of all sizes and 
shapes were staring 
straight at him, the gov- 
ernor had nothing to do 
but return to New York. 
There is no telling what 
might have been the fate 
of New England if, just at 
this time. King Charles 
had not found matters at 
home to look after which 
he considered of more importance than those in America. 
Yet worse foes than kings threatened the colonies. The 
Indians were plotting to drive the white men back over 
the " morning waters." 

One of the expressed reasons for the coming of the 
Puritans to America was to convert these ' ' benighted 
heathen." The seal of Massachusetts was an Indian, 
standing erect, holding an arrow in his right hand, and 
the motto: " Come over and help us." The conversion 
of Pocahontas, and her gentle behavior in London, had 
once aroused much interest among the Puritans of Eng- 
land, who resolved to establish missions among the red 




STREET IN NEW AMSTERDAM 



\ 



TROUBLOUS TIMES IN NEW ENGLAND ^J 

men when they reached America. They were kept so 
busy, however, planting homes in the wilderness that 
for several years after their arrival little missionary work 
was done. 

About the time of the confederation, Thomas Mayhew Thomas Mayhew 
established missions on Martha's Vineyard and Nan- onMartha-r""*"* 
tucket. Hiacoomes was his first convert. It was with vineyard and 

Nantucket 

much tribulation that this warrior remained true to the 
faith. One chief jeered at him and called him "English- 
man," which was thought enough to wound the feelings 
of any Indian who had any pride at all. Another chief 
told him it was infamous to barter thirty-seven gods for 
one. But Hiacoomes remained faithful to his pledges, 
and others were converted, until there were several hun- 
dred Christian Indians on the islands. 

Meanwhile John Eliot, of Roxbury, had learned the John Eiiot and tha 
Indian language, that he might preach to the heathen. of^MTsTachuIeTts 

He took his converts from the gibes of their compan- 
ions, and laid out the town of Natick on the Charles 
River, near Boston. Soon there were four hundred 
Christians in Natick. They built a fort, a church, 
and their own houses. The women were taught to 
spin and keep house. The men learned to cultivate 
the orchards and sow the small grain. They followed 
in endless delight the long furrows made with the 
plow, and were proud of their advanced methods of 
farming. Indian towns were built until there were four- 
teen "praying towns" in Massachusetts. 

Governor Winthrop and others wrote to friends in 
England of this spread of the gospel, and many contri- 
butions were sent to aid in the good work. Mr. Eliot 
printed a short catechism and two hundred New Testa- 
ments in the Algonquin language. He hoped by this 
means to convert all the tribes in New England. The 



78 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1661 
Complaints of 
the Indians 



1675 
The attack on 
Swanzey (July 4) 

1675-1678 
King Philip's war 



greater part of the warriors, however, held to the gods 
of their fathers. The Narragansetts hstened patiently 
once a month to Roger Williams, because they loved 
him, but few were converted to his faith. 

Massasoit, the chief of the Wampanoags, and the 
firm friend of the white men, said the manitoiis of his 
ancestors were good enough for him. 

After the death of this good chief, his son Philip began 
to make trouble. Philip had watched the white-winged 
ships bringing new settlers every year until there were 
more than twice as many white men as red men in New 
England. The Indians longed more and more for the cun- 
ning inventions which the white men gave in exchange 
for their lands. Tract after tract was signed away. 
The tribe of Philip, which had once owned all the coun- 
try from Narragansett Bay to Cape Cod, was crowded 
at last into the two small peninsulas of Mount Hope and 
Tiverton, on Narragansett Bay. 

Philip claimed that the warriors did not understand 
the deeds to which they had signed the rude outlines of an 
arrow, or a hatchet, or other symbol which represented 
their names. The Puritans, however, said that the Indians 
were shrewd and cunning in their trades; that they 
always got the best price they could for their furs, and 
sold their lands so cheaply because they prized the 
trinkets so much. 

Philip plotted mischief. The Mohawks on the Hud- 
son declared that he had offered them bribes to help 
drive out the palefaces. Then the little town of Swan- 
zey was attacked while the people were at meeting. The 
Nipmucks joined the Wampanoags, and the united war- 
riors spread ruin and death through New England. The 
Christian Indians who remained quietly in their towns 
were often unjustly suspected of treachery. Indeed, ties 



TROUBLOUS TIMES IN NEW ENGLAND 79 

of blood proved often stronger than those of faith, and, 
three weeks after the attack on Swanzey, a whole 
"praying town " of two hundred tied feathers into their 
cropped hair, painted themselves red, and deserted to the 
enemy. One Indian, who, perhaps, remembered when 
he had been whipped in Puritan fashion and set in the 
stocks for misconduct, soon wore a string of white fin- 
gers around his neck, which he had cut from the dead 
after a battle. 

Philip persuaded the Narragansetts to join in the 
massacres, and they built a great fort in a swamp at 
Kingston, and set up five hundred wigwams, within its 
stout palisades. Here the tribes gathered their old 
men, women, and children, and prepared for a bitter 
campaign. 

In the middle of bleak December, one thousand .^. 

1075 

soldiers under Governor Winslow attacked the fort. The battle of 

killed or captured more than a thousand warriors, and (De«mber i ) 

burned the old men, women, and children in their 

wigwams. . A few hundred warriors escaped to lay 

waste the settlements along the frontiers. , , 

1676 

At last, Philip himself was surrounded and shot by a Death of King 
treacherous Indian. His chief surrendered soon after, ^^'''p <A"g"s' ") 

Some of the Indian prisoners were divided into com- 
panies and quartered in villages where they were com- 
pelled to pay tribute. Some were sold as slaves in the 
West Indies, though the Reverend Eliot declared : "To 
sell souls seems dangerous merchandise. " -g 

The warriors who escaped, fled to the north and to The wampanoags, 
the west, where their kinsmen dwelt. Many years after, Nlr^gatsetutre 
moved by a hate which never slept, they guided French 
war parties to lay waste the fair fields of the English. 

The colonies lost six hundred men in this terrible war 
of King Philip. Thirteen towns were destroyed, forty 



driven out of 
New England 



8o 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



The Navigation 
Acts 



1676 
Edward Randolph, 
the king's 
commissioner 



1679 



others were the scenes of fire and death, and men, 
women, and children perished in captivity. 

While the people were rebuilding their towns, King 
Charles II again turned his attention to the colonies. The 
British Parliament, during the Protectorate, had passed 
Navigation Acts which required that intercolonial trade 
should be carried on in British vessels. After the acces- 
sion of Charles, Parliament listed articles for England 
alone, and forbade the importation of wares from any 
place in Europe unless first landed at a port in England. 
The British Board of Trade complained that American 
merchants were disobe>'ing the Navigation Acts. 

Charles sent Edward Randolph over to look into 
matters. Randolph assumed kingly airs as he went 
from port to port. He held revels on Saturday evenings 
in the streets of Boston, and insisted on observing the 
ceremonies of the Church of England on Sabbath. 

Governor Leverett, of Massachusetts, kept on his 
peaked hat in the presence of the royal commissioner 
and treated him with such disdain that he vowed ven- 
geance on the colony. He wrote Charles that his 
Majesty's letters were of no more account in Boston 
than a London gazette and that the people were a lot 
of smugglers planning to stir up rebellion in all the 
colonies. This was just one hundred years before a 
rebellion against tyranny was really declared. It is 
well to note with care the events which slowly brought 
on the Declaration of Independence in 1776. 

Randolph was made collector of customs, and when 
the merchants complained of the restrictions on their 
trade, he replied that it was not to his Majesty's interest 
that Americans should thrive. 

The quarrel with the people of Massachusetts grew 
so bitter that Charles succeeded in getting the Court of 



TROUBLOUS TIMES IN NEW ENGLAND 8 1 

1684 

Chancery to annul their charter. And so every foot The charter of 

of ground in Massachusetts was transferred to the crown, ^^^l^x^^^^^^ 

All titles to the lands and houses were void, and, if the 

king so willed, no man might dwell a day longer on the 

farm he had planted in the wilderness, jgg- 

While Charles was planning a new government for chariesUis 
Massachusetts, he died, and his brother, James, the Duke jamesii 
of York, became king. 

James II was even more tyrannical than Charles II, 
and took no account of any of the charters. He sent 
Sir Edmund Andros, the former governor of New York, 
to be governor-general of all New England. ^^g^ 

Two squadrons sailed into Boston Harbor bearing sir Edmond Andros, 

/-^ Ai "1 r-n-i'1 J* governor of the 

Governor Andros and a company of British grenadiers. Dominion of 
In scarlet and lace His Excellency walked at the head New England 
of his glittering band through the sullen crowds that 
Hned King's Street. Then he proceeded to Providence, 
and broke the seal of Rhode Island. And then, 
attended by his troopers, he went to Hartford, Conn. 

The Assembly was in session, and the town alive with 
excitement. It is tradition that while Governor Treat 
was pleading for the charter, as it lay on the table in 
the town hall, the candles were snuffed out suddenly, 
and before they were lit again the precious document The charter Oak of 
had been hidden by Captain Wadsworth in a hollow oak "'""^ ' 
tree. But this little incident did not interfere in the 
least with the plans of Governor Andros. He wrote 
FINIS at the end of the records, and declared the 
Assembly dissolved. 

The provinces of New York and the Jerseys were 
soon annexed to New England; and thus all the coast 
from Delaware to Canada came under the dominion of 
the king's governor. Boston was made the capital. 
The royal guards caroused through the streets swearing 
6 



82 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



and boasting of the bets they had won. There were 
cockfights on Shrove Tuesday, and Maypoles set up on 
the green; and the prim Puritan town was kept in a 
ferment from morning till night. 



CHAPTER XIII 



1686 

Puritans and 
cavaliers are under 
ihe rule of the 
royal governors 




1629 
Maryland, a 
proprietary 
government under 
the Calverts 



169I 

A royal province 

1716 
Again a proprietary 
colony 



THE LATER COLONIES 

We have now seen how the Puritans of New England, 
as well as the cavaliers of Virginia, came, at last, to be 
ruled by the king's governors. 

While these political changes were taking 
place in the two pioneer settlements, the vast 
wilderness between them was being explored 
and colonized. The Catholics in England had 
been persecuted, and they, too, sought refuge 
in America. During the reign of Charles I, a 
wealthy Catholic gentleman, George Calvert, 
baron of Baltimore, explored the country north 
of the Potomac. He liked it so well that he obtained a 
charter for the territory, which he named Maryland in 
honor of the queen, Henrietta Maria. Lord Baltimore 
was created proprietor of the province, and for over forty 
years, with a few exceptions, the Calverts ruled in Mary- 
land. They permitted freemen to elect a House of Bur- 
gesses and welcomed all Christian people, whatever their 
creed. Lord Baltimore was deprived of his province on 
account of his support of James II after that king's ban- 
ishment, but, twenty-five years later, Maryland was re- 
stored to the proprietor. 

Tobacco became the chief industry. Large domains 
were laid out where the mansions of the rich planters 



J 



THE LATER COLONIES 83 

were surrounded by the straggling huts of the poor 

whites and the clustered cabins of the negroes. There 

were few towns and no free schools, and the social life 

in Maryland was very much like that in Virginia. These 

two colonies were not always on the best of terms by 

reason of disputes about boundary lines and religion; 

but their public interests were much the same. If 

either was attacked by the Indians, the other rallied coioneijohn 

to aid. At one time, when a band of warriors invaded thrvSamUitia. 

Maryland, Colonel John Washington, the great grand- helps drive the 

fi c /-^ TTTi- 11-r-v Indians out of 

lather of George Washmgton, crossed the Potomac with Maryland 
his Virginia troops to help drive them out. 

Virginia, with this new province on the north, must 
needs cease spreading her plantations beyond the Po- 
tomac; so her people began to settle the land to the 
south. First, through swamps and pathless forests some 
poor whites wandered who had served their term of 
indenture. They built huts along Albemarle Sound, and The Aibemarie 
busied themselves with trading in furs, and tar and tur- ^^"'^™^"' 
pentine, made from the pine trees. 

Then some Quakers fled from Virginia, to find homes 
near the very spot where Sir Walter Raleigh's colonies 
had attempted to make settlements so many years be- 
fore. And then eight hundred rich planters from Bar- The cape Fear 
badoes bought lands of the Indians, and laid out planta- R'^" "'ti«'"-"t 
tions along Cape Fear River. 

That same year Charles II granted the lower part of Carolina becomes a 
South Virginia to the Duke of Albemarle, the Earl of p^^p"^'^ 

"-" ' government 

Clarendon, and six other favorites. Their patent was 
much like Calvert's, except that there were eight proprie- 
tors instead of one. They adopted the old French name 
Carolina because it was like the king's, and they sent 
agents through Great Britain to encourage immigration. 
Charles I was so pleased with the growth of the colony 



84 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1665 

The Carolina grant 
enlarged, and 
extends from "sea 
to sea " 



1669 



John Locke's 
" grand model " 




1670 
Charleston founded 

1695 
Rice begins to 
be cultivated 



171I 

Massacres by 
the Tuscaroras 



which bore his name that he soon enlarged its bounda- 
ries, making its north hne the present south Hne of Vir- 
ginia and its south Hne a few miles north of the Spanish 
town of St. Augustine, while the whole grant extended 
" from sea to sea." 

Settlers came from the Bermudas and from New 
England to the north part of Carolina, until they were 
numerous enough to elect an assembly to meet with a 
governor and his council. 

When the lordly proprietors saw the prosperity of 
their colony, they decided to give it the best government 
the world had ever known. They employed the phi- 
losopher, John Locke, to draw up a constitution. He 
planned an aristocracy, with the ofifices distributed 
jcro among the nobility. The common people, who 
"^ - were to have no voice in the government, were 
to be bought and sold with the land much as 
the serfs were, at that time, in Russia. The 
hardy settlers laughed at this ridiculous at- 
tempt to turn them into slaves; and in the 
end, the proprietors gave up the costly experi- 
ment, and permitted the people to continue to elect an 
Assembly and make their own laws. Immigrants came 
to Carolina in great numbers. Charleston was settled, 
and, when rice was found to be profitable in the south 
part of Carolina, more came than ever. Fields of thirty 
and forty acres of rice were laid out along the Ashley 
River, and many negroes were imported. 

There was constant fear of Indians. The Tuscaroras 
on the north tried in vain to stay the tide of immigration. 
They lurked in the forests to destroy small parties of 
trappers and wood-choppers, and then, getting their 
clans together, laid waste the settlements with torch and 
scalping knife. But all the struggles of the Indians had 



THE LATER COLONIES 8$ 

the same end. Like the Algonquins of New England, 

the Tuscaroras of Carolina gave way before the white 

men. They gathered their women and children, their 1715 

hatchets and skins together, and, moving north to their The Tuscaroras 

" _ " _ become the 

kinsmen in New York, became the sixth nation among sixth nation 
the Iroquois. j^29 

After a time, Carolina was made a royal province and North Carolina and 
divided into North Carolma and South Carolina. Each become roya"^ 
province had its own royal governor, and an Assembly provinces 
elected by the people. 

Now, at the very time that Charles II gave away the 
vast territory of Carolina to some court favorites, 
he was deeply in debt to others. 

Among the large sums he owed were sixteen 
thousand pounds (about eighty thousand dol- 
lars), due Admiral Sir William Penn. This 
distinguished naval officer had a son named 
William, who refused a brilliant career at 
court to become a Quaker. The Quak- 
ers, as we have seen, were much despised 
and persecuted in England and the colo- 
nies. But they could not be bribed or pun- william penn 
ished into doing what they believed was wrong. 1644-1718 
Oliver Cromwell said, ' ' They are a people I can not 
win with gifts, honors, or places. " 

Their leader, George Fox, declared it was wrong to George Fox. the 
bow, or "scrape the leg " to any one. They would not Sr°°^Friends, 
remove their broad brim hats, even before the king, and or Quakers 
kept them on their heads so much that the wits of Lon- 
don said: "Their virtue must lie in their hats as Sam- 
son's did in his hair ! " 

The plain garb of the Quakers was in great contrast The peculiar 
with the belaced and beribboned apparel of the cava- q^^^^°^^^^ 
liers. They said " thee " and " thou," would not serve 




86 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



William Ppnn at the 
gay court of 
Louis XIV 

1665 
The London plague 



Penn inherits his 
father's estate 

1674 
Lord Berkeley sells 
West Jersey to a 
company of 
Quakers 

1676 
The heirs of Sir 
George Carteret sell 
East Jersey to Penn 
and other Quakers 



1681 
Penn's Woodland 



in the army, or make oath in court; and they seemed to 
take pride in being punished for their religious views. 
When it was reported around the streets that young 
Penn had turned ' ' Quaker or some other melancholy 
thing," he became the sport of all his old boon com- 
panions. The proud Admiral was greatly distressed at 
this change in his promising son. He sent him to Paris, 
hoping he might lose his religion. Penn was presented 
at the court of Louis XIV, and seemed for a time to be 
his old self again; but soon after his return to London, 
the plague broke out, and his religious fervor burned 
brighter than ever. He was turned into the street by 
his father, and imprisoned in Newgate, and fined sev- 
eral times by the courts. 

In the end the old Admiral learned to respect his 
son's devotion to his religion. He summoned him 
home, and, at his death, made him his heir. About 
this time, an association of Quakers bought West Jersey, 
and then William Penn and some of his friends bought 
East Jersey. Penn became active in sending Quakers to 
colonize East Jersey. The enterprise succeeded so well 
that he resolved to provide a home for all persecuted 
Christians. He asked "Friend Charles" to grant the 
land west of the Jerseys in exchange for the sixteen 
thousand pounds still due his estate. This seemed to 
the thoughtless king a very good way to cancel his debt, 
and he issued the patent for a vast tract which he called 
Penn's Woodland, or Pennsylvania. Penn and his heirs 
were made sole proprietors of the province, and required 
to pay two beaver skins every year to prove their loyalty 
to the crown. Penn drew up a liberal constitution for 
the government of a colony, and established bureaus for 
immigration all over Europe. 

Early the following year he sent a shipload of Quakers 



THE LATER COLONIES 



87 



to Pennsylvania; and in October he came himself with a 1682 

hundred more settlers. That he m?ght have an outlet 

to the ocean through the noble river on the east, he had 

purchased what is now Delaware from the Duke of York; Penn purchases 

and when he landed at New Castle, the authority over 

that country was transferred to the new governor. ^^g 

It is said that, under a spreading elm on the bank of Penn makes a treaty 
the Delaware, he assembled the Indians who claimed Indians" 
Pennsylvania, and bought the province again, and made 
a treaty which lasted longer than he lived. 

Penn divided his province into counties and 
lots, and put up the land for sale at forty shil- 
lings for a hundred acres. Then he founded 
a city, called Philadelphia, or ' ' Brotherly 
Love," laying it out in squares with broad ave- 
nues; and he ordered a handsome house built 
for himself. At the end of two years Phila- 
delphia had two thousand inhabitants, and 
the whole province nearly eight thousand. 
Penn was soon called to England, but the colony con- 
tinued to grow, so that when he again visited America, Penn returns 
there were more than twenty thousand settlers, and *° "^^" 
Philadelphia was almost a rival of Boston. This rapid He visits his colony 
growth was largely due to the fact that absolute freedom 
of conscience was allowed in the province. 

When three counties on the Delaware asked for a 
government of their own, Penn allowed them to elect an 
Assembly, but they still acknowledged the same governor 
as Pennsylvania. 

Many years after William Penn had been laid away to 
rest in a quiet churchyard in England, James Oglethorpe, 
who had served as an officer with Marlborough on the 
famous battlefields of Europe, planned to found a colony unfortunate 
in America. While a member of Parliament, Oglethorpe 




1684 



1703 

Delaware elects its 
own assembly 



1732 
James Oglethorpe 
plans to found a 
home for the 



88 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



George II gives a 
charter for settlers 
in the south part of 
South Carolina 



The province of 
Georgia 



1733 
Settlement of 
Savannah 



The liberal charter 
of Georgia encour- 
ages immigration 



had learned about the wretched condition of prisoners 
for debt, and many hundred debtors were set free through 
his influence. After disgrace in the jails a man could 
hardly ever succeed in his old neighborhood, so Ogle- 
thorpe resolved to found a settlement in America which 
would give to the unhappy debtors a chance to begin life 
over again. When he sought aid for his project. Parlia- 
ment made an appropriation of money, and 
benevolent people contributed to the good 
work. 

King George II determined to take a slice 
off his royal province of South Carolina for 
the new colony. The people of that prov- 
ince did not object to this. They were glad 
to have a settlement between themselves 
and the Spaniards of Florida, who were 
causing a great deal of trouble. Oglethorpe 
and a few others received ' • in trust for the 
poor" the land between the Savannah and the Altamaha 
Rivers, and a strip extending west from the sources of 
these rivers to the Pacific Ocean. They called the 
province Georgia in honor of the king. The noble Ogle- 
thorpe left luxuries and honors at court that he might 
aid in making homes for the homeless. 

With a colony of over a hundred paupers he founded the 
town of Savannah. He made peace with the Cherokees 
from the mountain streams of the Blue Ridge, and with 
the Choctaws from the fertile valley of the lower Missis- 
sippi, and even with the Creeks, who claimed the land. 

Because of the delightful climate, and the liberal 
charter of Georgia, German-Lutherans, Scotch-High- 
landers, and French Protestants pressed forward across 
the ocean to find homes there. They came first to 
Savannah, and Governor Oglethorpe often accompanied 




THE LATER COLONIES 89 

them through the forest to some river, lake, or bay; and 
when the good man visited the scattered settlements, 
they gave him a joyous greeting. 

He praised the Germans for their thrift and good 
cheer; he pleased the Scotch by donning the Highland 
plaid as he approached their village on the Altamaha; 
he talked to the French in their native tongue; and 
throughout all the province of Georgia there was peace 
and content because of the wise and just laws which 
Oglethorpe made. 

Georgia was the last English province established in Georgia, the last 
what is now the United States. Henceforth the sea "^'^ "^°°°^ 
will be white with the sails of commerce; thousands 
of settlers will enter the ports along the Atlantic to 
strengthen the colonies until the mountains that bind 
them to the sea are overrun. Will the smiling valleys 
beyond receive them ? 



CHAPTER XIV 

UNDER THE ROYAL GOVERNORS 

While the English colonies were clinging close to the 
sea, busy with farming, fishing, and trade, the French to The French 
the north settled Acadia, comprising what is now New 
Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and a portion of Maine, and 
New France, which included the valley of the St. Law- 
rence and the lakes feeding that river. ^^^g 

Missions grew rapidly on the St. Lawrence after champiain fouiideu 
Samuel de Champiain built a fort at Quebec 

Quebec had, before Harvard was founded at Cam 
bridge, a college to educate the Indian converts. 



90 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Father Dreuiiiettes Jcsuit priests planted churchcs along the northern 
EHot ^ ^^ " lakes, and it is said that Father Dreuiiiettes, who estab- 
lished a mission on the Penobscot, paid the Rev. John 
Eliot a friendly visit at Roxbury to plan how best they 
might save the souls of the red men. 

But not all the French were thus bent on saving 

The French traders the souls of the red men. The restless French traders 

made peace with the warriors, and married the dusky 

maidens of the forest; they changed rude wigwams into 

cottages, and grouped 



these into villages, which 
soon became the centers 
of trade. 

When Father Pierre 
Marquette and Louis 
Joliet, a merchant, heard 
the Indians talk of the 
Mississippi River, they 
thought it might be the 
long-sought passage to 
India, and resolved to 
explore it. With six 
companions, in two light birch-bark canoes, they passed 
from Lake Michigan by land and stream, to the Missis- 
sippi, and sped on beyond the Ohio until they reached 
the mouth of the Arkansas River. Here provisions gave 
out, and they returned to Montreal after many adven- 
tures among the Indians. 

Then Robert de la Salle,* a young French cavalier, 
heard of the great river and its wonderful beaver lands. 
With a few other adventurers he reached the site of 
what is now Chicago. Dragging their boats up the 




FATHER MARQUETTE 



1673 
Marquette and 
Joliet on the 
Mississippi 



1681 
La Salle at the site 
of Chicago 



^ Read Parkman's "La Salle and the Discovery of the Great West. 



UNDER THE ROYAL GOVERNORS QI 

St. Joseph and the Kankakee to the Illinois, they floated 

down the Mississippi, and finally reached the Gulf 

of Mexico. On the shore of the gulf, La Salle set up a ,^ 

cross, and took possession of the valley of the Missis- Louisiana becomes a 

sippi and of its tributaries in the name of Louis XIV, frp'Jrj"' ^""" 

and called it Louisiana. These new lands claimed by 

France extended from the Alleghany Mountains to the 

Rocky Mountains, the two ranges, where the rivers 

which swept down into the gulf, found their sources. 

Now the English, as we have seen, claimed all f^^ 

this land as far west as the Pacific Ocean, because ^^^ w&;^ 
they had first sighted the east coast of the conti- ^-f^^^ 
nent during the voyages of the Cabots. Most of >4X • \^ 
their charters granted tracts "from sea to sea." »^g^*^)|4y 
But La Salle said that actual discovery and possession |/|| piju ^ 
were worth all the claims in the world; and he buiU |L////|||| 
a fort on the Illinois and trading posts on other rivers. ^^^B 
The heroic man was shot by some jealous comrades ^ W 
while he was attempting to establish a colony «H_M "' _ -^^ 

at the mouth of the Mississippi River. •■~=^^^^^^^^^^=^ 

Then Henri de Tonti, called the "Iron =— 

Hand, "from a knot of metal covered with leather 

instead of the hand he had lost in battle, strengthened Henri de Tonti 

the forts on the Illinois, and Cadillac built Detroit near *"'^"^* ^°*' ® 

' posts on the 

Lake Huron; so that by the opening of the eighteenth nnnois 
century, the French trappers were traveling from Hud- (jajinacbriids 
son's Bay to the Gulf of Mexico. Fon Detroit 

Meantime, to cut off the English from the fur trade 
on the lakes, the French planned to conquer New York. The French plan to 
But between themselves and the settlements on the ''°°'i"" 
Hudson, were the Iroquois, or Five Nations, who had 
made treaties of peace with the English. 

"Capture the Iroquois, and send them to France as 
slaves," wrote Louis XIV. This, however, was not 



92 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



The French try to 
bribe the Iroquois to 
make war upon 
the English 



1684 

The governors of 
New York and 
Virginia sign a 
treaty of peace with 
the Iroquois at 
Albany 



Complaints against 
Governor Andros 



such an easy thing to do. The French tried to bribe 
them to take up arms against the EngHsh; but they 
would not dig up the hatchet they had buried under 
a httle Dutch church. They donned their best war 
paint, and swooping down on the Indians south of the 
lakes, who were allies of the French, they drove them 
beyond the Illinois. 

On their way back to New York, the Iroquois turned 
their tomahawks against the settlers along the frontiers 
of Virginia, which caused the governor of Virginia to 
come up to Albany to make a treaty of peace. When 
the governors of New York and Virginia met them in 
solemn council, the chiefs smoked the calumet, and 
pledged to keep peace with the English forever. They 
asked that the coat-of-arms of the Duke of York be 
nailed over the doors of their "long houses" to protect 
them from the French. 

This treaty with the Iroquois was of vast importance 
to the English. It was a safeguard against the French; 
and it brought the colonies of the South into alliance 
with those of the North. We shall find that Virginia 
soon made common cause with New England in defense 
of her soil. 

Now New England under the rule of a royal governor 
was very unhappy. The frontiers were harassed by hos- 
tile Indians, and the people strongly suspected that Gov- 
ernor Andros was plotting to surrender the provinces to 
the French. When he built forts far up on the fron- 
tiers and sent hundreds of the best New England troops 
for garrisons, they said it was because he wished to be 
rid of that many soldiers; and when he sent presents 
to the Five Nations, they said he was giving a bribe to 
induce the red men to make war on New England. 

They were just about to rebel against the governor's 



UNDER THE ROYAL GOVERNORS 93 

1689 

authority when strange news came from over the sea. Kingjamesii 
It was reported that the people of England would not llTand'MTr^of ' 
tolerate the rule of the tyrant James any longer, and orange invited to 

rule in England 

had invited his nephew and daughter, William and 
Mary, to reign in his stead. A signal on Beacon Hill 
summoned the soldiers of Duxbury, Marshfield, and all 
the settlements on the bay into Boston. 

The magistrates who had held office before the rule of The magistrates of 
Andros, assembled in the Council Chamber to deliberate ag°aiTinThTcouncii 
what should be done. At last they appeared on the chamber 
balcony of the Town Hall, and to the people who stood 
in the street below they recounted the wrongs of the 
province since the charter had been taken away. They 
demanded that Governor Andros give up his authority. 
The trembling tool of the king, after three years of rule, Andros is imprisoned 
surrendered his seal, and was hurried off to prison. 

It was bold to seize thus a royal governor. If the 
cause of Parliament should fail, King James would show 
no mercy to his rebellious colonies. 

The Puritans watched the sea anxiously; and when 
a royal squadron arrived with orders from Parliament wiiiiam and Mary 
to proclaim William and Mary king and queen of Eng- ';::!;ZtnZ^f 
land, they were wild for very joy. 

Because Boston was the capital, people from all New 
England flocked there to celebrate the event. A dinner 
was given at the Town Hall for the magistrates and 
people of quality; a parade was held on the Common; 
and, at night, there was merrymaking till the bell in 
the Town Hall rang at nine o'clock for bed. 

And then prayers of thanksgiving were offered in 
thousands of homes because the colonies were delivered 
from the oppressions of King James II. 

Andros was sent to England for trial. Massachusetts The colonies resume 
asked Governor Bradstreet to resume his robes of office, seif-govemment 



94 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Plymouth spread out the compact she had framed on 
the Mayflower. Rhode Island put her broken seal 
together again. Connecticut brought forth her beloved 
charter from the old oak tree; and all the colonies of 
New England ruled themselves again until they might 
hear what was the royal pleasure of King William III. 



CHAPTER XV 



Louis XIV favors 
the cause of the 
exiled James II 



1689-1697 
King William's war 



1689 

The Iroquois 
besiege Montreal 



1690 
Massacre at 
Schenectady 




WAR, WITCHES, AND PIRATES 

1689-1713 

HEN Louis XIV received the 
exiled James at his court and 
treated him as a king, Eng- 
land engaged in a war with 
France which soon extended 
to the colonies in America. 

Louis sent Count De Fron- 
tenac to Canada, and ordered 
him to conquer New York. Frontenac put on war paint 
and feathers, danced with the Algonquin Indians along 
the St. Lawrence, and prepared to lead an expedition 
down the Hudson. 

But the Iroquois, or Five Nations, hurried to besiege 
Montreal, and they kept the French governor busy at 
home for the rest of the year. 

In the following February, Frontenac sent a company 
of French and Indians to New York. They set fire to 
Schenectady, and massacred most of the inhabitants. 
For several months French troops followed Indian 
guides through the forests of Maine, New Hampshire, 
and Massachusetts to lay waste the settlements. 



WAR, WITCHES, AND PIRATES. 95 

Meanwhile commissioners from Connecticut, Plymouth, 
Massachusetts, and New York met at New York City, 
and planned expeditions against Canada. 

Sir William Phips, with two thousand Massachusetts sir wiiiiam Phips 
volunteers, seized Port Royal in Acadia, and attempted ^^'^" °r'Royai 
to take Quebec, but failed. 

About this time King William announced his good 
pleasure concerning the government of the colonies. 
He allowed Connecticut and Rhode Island to keep their 
old charters. He gave Massachusetts a new charter, 
but kept control of the province. 

The shrewd monarch knew very well that he must Coioniai government 
wage bitter war along the St. Lawrence or lose his "" ^"^ ' '^"^ 
American colonies. So to protect the frontiers he 
annexed Maine, Acadia, and Plymouth to Massachusetts. 
Then he placed royal governors over New York, 
New Hampshire, and Massachusetts. In all three prov- 
inces he allowed the people to hold their own town 
meetings and elect their own legislatures, with all relig- 
ious restrictions removed; but the governors who had 
the power of veto and might dissolve the assemblies, 
were the supreme judges of the courts and the command- 
ers-in-chief of the militias. 

Governor Fletcher, of New York, was ordered to con- ,. ^ 

' 1092 

trol the militia of the neighboring colonies, and soon Governor Fletcher 

marched to Hartford to show his authority. It was 

training day when he reached the town. The militia 

was drawn up on the green in command of the same 

Captain Wadsworth, who had hidden the charter in 

the oak. 

The governor began to read his royal commission, but 
the captain straightway stopped him. He said that Captain wadsworth 
Connecticut had a charter from the king, which gave "*" '^ °" '"* 
her control of her own troops. When Governor Fletcher 



96 COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 

began again to read, Captain Wadsworth ordered the 
drums to drown his voice; and the would-be-commander 
returned to New York in disgust. This event so dehghted 
the people of Connecticut that they elected the captain 
,692 governor. 

Sir William Phips is To plcasc Massachusctts, King William appointed an 

made the royal » • 1 ,1 ,1 o* 

governor of AmcHcan as governor, who was no other than Sir 

Massachusetts William Phips. 

Now the way a poor American boy came to receive the 
title of " Sir" was this: while hewing trees in Maine for 
ship timber, William Phips heard of the wreck of a 
Spanish galleon laden with gold. He determined to 
recover the treasure, built his own ship, and sailed for 
the wreck. The expedition failed. Hearing of another 

The romantic career Stranded vcssel off thc coast of South America, Phips 

°^ ^'"P^ went to England for help to find it. James H was then 

king; he was pleased with the eager young sailor, and 
fitted out a ship at his own expense. When this voyage 
proved also unsuccessful, the crew urged Phips to turn 
pirate, but this he refused to do. 

Through the aid of some English nobles he made 
another search for the gold. With Indian divers, hooks, 
and rakes he fished out vast treasures from the sea, and 
1687 sailed back to England with over two million dollars. 

He became the hero of the hour, and was knighted by the 
king and toasted by the lords, who received a large share 
of the spoils. 

When King James made him sheriff of New England, 
he built a handsome house in Boston, and was dwelling 
there in grand style as "the famous Sir William Phips," 
1690 when the capture of Acadia made him more famous than 

ever; and so King William, thinking the people would 
prefer a native American, appointed him governor of 
Massachusetts. 



WAR, WITCHES, AND PIRATES 97 

The war with the French and the Indians continued . - 

1697 

by land and sea, until, at last, a treaty of peace was Treaty of Ryswick 
signed at Ryswick, in Holland. Acadia was given back 
to the French, and England paid Massachusetts for the 
expenses of the expedition against it. 

Meanwhile, witches were more feared in the little 
Puritan towns than even the French or their Indians. 

For many years people in the countries of Europe had 

been burned at the stake for witchcraft. It began to be 

whispered about in New England that witches had found 

their way across the sea. The whole town of Salem was 

soon deluded into the belief that witches were there. . 

1692 

Twenty innocent persons were put to death on the charge Saiem witchcraft 
of witchcraft, and hundreds were imprisoned in Massa- 
chusetts. But when good Lady Phips, the governor's 
wife, and several high officials of blameless lives were 
accused, the judges began to return to their senses. 
Some confessions were finally made which were proved 
so false that the prisoners were all set free.^ 

Besides the witches, there were the pirates. From the 
time of Sir Francis Drake, pirates had infested the coast 
of America; and after the colonies began to prosper, the The pirates 
sea robbers grew very bold. They found ready sale 
in the seaports of Europe for cargoes of dried cod, bales 
of tobacco, or a few hundred packs of beaver and mink 
skins. 

At one time the entire coast was under the sway of 
Blackbeard. Ships from Boston were scuttled; sloops 
from Connecticut, bearing sheep and cattle, were boarded, 
and scows from Rhode Island were towed away to South 
American markets. 

At last, the king of pirates met his fate in the person 
of an English officer who sailed into the James River 

* Read Longfellow's "New England Tragedies." 



98 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1718 
Benjamin Franklin 
composes a ditty 
on the death of 
Blackbeard 



The privateers 



Privateers become 
pirates 



1697 
Captain Kidd sets 
sail from Plymouth 
to punish the pirates 



with the head of Blackbeard nailed to the bowsprit. 
And Benjamin Franklin, a lively young printer, composed 
a song on the death of Blackbeard that was sung through 
the streets of Boston. 

Some other pirates were Captain Tew, of New York, 
who won a fortune on the sea; Captain Avery, who 
hid his booty in Boston; and Captain Low, who hated 
all men in New England, and made the master of a whal- 
ing vessel, off the coast of Maine, eat his own ears with 
pepper and salt. 

After the French war began, privateers caused almost 
as much trouble as pirates. Privateering was then 
thought to be only a war on the sea, and to capture and 
plunder their vessels seemed a good way to weaken the 
enemy. 

But, strange to say, it very often happened that when 
a merchant captain put cannon at his portholes, received 
a commission from his governor to capture French ves- 
sels, and sailed away breathing vengeance on the French, 
he soon turned pirate, and was off on the high seas 
plundering any ship he could find. 

This turning of privateers into pirates became noto- 
rious, and when King William heard of it, he said it 
must be stopped. Proclamations were accordingly pub- 
lished by drum beats through the towns on the coast, 
requiring officers to arrest suspected persons, and warn- 
ing people not to harbor any pirates in their homes. By 
order of the king, Captain Kidd was put in command of 
a cruiser with thirty guns, and he set sail from Plymouth, 
England, to punish the pirates. Captain Kidd went the 
way of all others. He turned pirate, himself, and hid his 
plunder on an island of Narragansett Bay. At last, he 
was captured, taken to Boston, and then sent to Lon- 
don where he was tried, condemned, and hanged. 



WAR, WITCHES, AND PIRATES 99 

Henceforth there was little more trouble with privateers 
turning pirates. 

The peace which followed King William's war did 
not last very long. Soon after hostilities began again, 
King William died, and Queen Anne, his sister-in-law. Queen Anne's war 
continued the war with both France and Spain. 

One winter the French and Indians sped down on 
their snowshoes to Deerfield, Mass., set fire to the ^ 

village, and killed or carried away all of its people. The French and 
Along the frontier of New England the farmer in the Deerfieid'^*^ 
field and his wife and children at the fireside were killed 
and scalped without mercy, until troops were raised for 
land and sea to conquer Canada. 

A fleet of ships with English and Colonial troops cap- 
tured Port Royal again; and, the following year, thirty- 
two vessels sailed up the St. Lawrence to take Quebec. 
But eight ships, drifting in a thick fog against the rocks, Acadia again taken 
went to pieces, and a thousand soldiers were drowned, ''y ^'^^ ^"eiish 
The rest of the fleet returned home, and towns continued 
to be burned and people massacred along the frontier of 
New England. 

Meanwhile there was war in South Carolina against 
the Spaniards. English troops could not conquer the The expedition 
stout fort of St. Augustine; but when four years later ^g«'"^»st. Augustine 
a French and Spanish fleet sailed up the harbor to 
Charleston, the brave people repelled the invaders, and 
they returned to Cuba. 

When peace was patched up again by the treaty of 
Utrecht, Acadia was left in possession of the English, 
who called the province Nova Scotia, and changed the 
name of Port Royal to Annapolis, in honor of Queen The treaty 
Anne. France and England kept the peace for many °^ Utrecht 
years; but the Indian allies of the French still made 
attacks on the frontier of the North. There was not a 



lOO COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 

Single English settlement for more than a hundred miles 
on the east coast of Maine, and the canoes of the red 
men glided undisturbed among its many bays. 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE WESTWARD MARCH 

1713-1754 

In the long years of peace which followed Queen 

Anne's war the colonies began again to prosper. 

A long peace follows Piratcs trcmblcd then instead of thrifty merchants, and 

Queen Anne's war pfQud ships bore tlic products of plantation, farm, and 

forest to distant shores, and hastened back laden with 

the wares of Europe. 

The settlers who were engaged in foreign commerce 
and the fisheries clung closely to the sea; but a few 
hardy adventurers began to look about for more trade 
with the Indians. They pushed boldly toward the west- 
ern frontiers of New York, Pennsylvania, and Virginia; 
herdsmen of South Carolina drove their cattle farther 
west to feed upon the uplands; indented servants, when 
The movement free to find homes of their own, threaded Indian trails 
to the slopes of the mountains, and pitched their tents 
until they might build houses from the forests; and, 
when religious persecution in Europe drove more emi- 
grants across the sea, the German Lutherans and the 
Scotch-Irish pressed toward the mountains of the West.' 
Soon the eastern slopes of the Alleghanies were dotted 
with neat farms and hunting lodges. But no one yet 
knew what lay beyond the mountains. 

iRead Roosevelt's "Winning of the West." 



toward the West 



THE WESTWARD MARCH lOI 

About this time Sir Alexander Spotswood came to Vir- 
ginia as governor. He was an enthusiastic sportsman, 
and ^ when weary of petty disputes with his burgesses, Governor Spotswood 
sought relaxation in a chase through the glades of the p'^"' ^" "P^^ition 
neighboring forest. The gallant governor soon sighed 
for new worlds to conquer. He mounted and armed 
some cavaliers, and, with rangers, and Indian guides, 
and plenty of provisions, set out to find what lay beyond 
the Blue Ridge. 

The explorers hunted as they toiled, with many a jest, 
up the rugged mountain side. When they reached the 
dividing* line where the waters part to flow east and a glimpse beyond 
west, they looked with astonishment over the valleys, "^^^lue Ridge 

' ■' -' ' Mountains 

forests, and flowing streams, which stretched far beyond 
toward the setting sun. They took possession of the 
land in the name of King George I, and returned, with 
great flourish of trumpets, to Williamsburg. 

So important did Governor Spotswood deem the event 
that he gave golden horseshoes for badges to those who "The Knights of the 
had drunk to the king's health on the top of Mount Golden Horseshoe- 
George. 

A new interest in the West was aroused by this 
famous expedition; trappers pushed more boldly beyond 
the stone wall of the Alleghanies, and, after a few years, 
some Scotch-Irish, Quakers, and Germans crossed from 
Pennsylvania and Virginia into the rich valley of the 
Shenandoah. They were hardy and bold. They sought The shenanLh 
homes for themselves, and were content with small farms ^^uey is settled 
and few slaves. There were no cavaliers among them, 
and we shall see that the settlers west of the Blue Ridge 
became so different in thought and life from those on 
the bottom lands, east of the mountains, that they 
formed themselves into a separate State to be known as 
West Virginia. 



102 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1739 

England declares a 
commercial war 
against Spain 



1740 
Expedition to 
Cartagena 



1743 

The Washington 
estate is named 
Mount Vernon 



Now, although the EngHsh in America were at peace 
with the French for many years after Queen Anne's 
war, England, in order to extend her commerce to the 
ports of South America, declared war with Spain, and 
called for volunteers from the colonies. This Spanish 
war brought the soldiers of the North and the South 
together, and helped to knit a bond of sympathy between 
them. While the Georgia and South Carolina troops 
under Governor Oglethorpe were besieging St. Augustine, 
companies of soldiers from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, 
Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina enlisted under 
Sir Alexander Spotswood, our Knight of the Golden 
Horseshoe, to sail to South America. The expedition was 
a sad failure from the beginning. The gallant Spots- 
wood died while waiting for the troops at Annapolis, Md. 
Under the leadership of another comntander over three 
thousand Americans, eager to measure their prowess 
with the soldiers of England, joined Admiral Vernon at 
Jamaica. 

From there, fifteen thousand troops weighed anchor, 
only to face death at Cartagena. After an intrepid 
assault, they were beaten back from the strong fortress. 
Then a fever of the tropics spread through the fleet, and 
hundreds who died of the pest were thrown into the sea. 
Less than five hundred of the recruits from the colonies 
came back to their homes. 

Many Americans won distinction in this expedition 
against the Spaniards. Among them was Lawrence 
Washington, who though only twenty years old served 
as captain of one of the Virginia regiments. On his 
return, Washington named his estate on the Potomac 
••Mount Vernon," in honor of Admiral Vernon, little 
dreaming that his eleven-year-old brother, George, 



THE WESTWARD MARCH IO3 

would one day make the spot more famous than any 
other in America. A siege against St. Augustine was 
unsuccessful, and, two years later, when the Spaniards 
invested a fort in Georgia, they were forced to retreat by 
the strategy of Oglethorpe. 

While peace had lingered on the banks of the St. The French found 
Lawrence, the French had been busy preparing to shut fnT^buiw Fbrlr'^' 
the English out of the Mississippi valley. They founded Niagara (1726) and 

■vT j^ 1 r • n t -r^ •I'll-' XT- 1 Crown Point (1731) 

New Orleans, fortified -Detroit, built tort Niagara, and 
Fort Crown Point on Lake Champlain ; they strength- 
ened all their trading posts, until from the mouth of the 
Mississippi to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, there was a 
chain of sixty forts. They planned to win back Nova 
Scotia, and built a stout fortress on Cape Breton Island, 
which they named Louisburg after King Louis XV. 

When France declared hostilities in the ' ' War of 

1 744-48 

the Austrian Succession, "or "King George's War," the •• King George's 
French garrison of Louisburg attacked the English posts "^^"^ " 
in Nova Scotia. Governor Shirley, of Massachusetts, 
then sent William Pepperell with New England troops The capture of 
against Louisburg. Aided by a fleet from England, ^""'"''"'^s 
they took the great fortress after a siege of six weeks. „ 

Three years later, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, The treaty of 
England restored Louisburg to the French. Aix-ia-chapeiie 

The French were now more determined than ever 
to hold their territory in America. The governor of 
Canada sent Celoron de Bienville and others to take 
formal possession of the valley of the Ohio River. 
They nailed the lilies of France on the forest trees, and 
buried plates of lead, inscribed with the legend that the 
country belonged to France. 

King George II, however, was determined to secure George 11 offers 
the Ohio valley by settlement, and offered a vast tract sJ^l^eTs^nX" 
to any company that would induce a hundred families to ohiovaiiey 



104 



CX^LON 1 Al. PK VJiLOPMKXT 



J, colonu'o it. The Ohio CvMupany sent (.liristopher Ciist, 

vhc ohk> «.\>«tv»«y to survey the laud. W'hou Gist returued. lio i^.ivo siuli 
i^lowiUi; uooounts ot iho boautitul valloy that the hui^hsh 
wore more anxious than over to uiako it tlioir own. 
Moanwhile, under Marquis Ouquesne. the t;ov- 
eruor of Canuda. the French were building Fort 
IVesvjue Isle, on l-;ike Erie, h^ort Lelxt^uf. on 
French C^reek, and l\>rt N'enango. near the junc- 
tion of French Creek and the Allegheny River ; 
they weiv preixiring to fortify the banks of the 
Monongahela when (.lovernor Robert Dinwiddie. 
of \irginia, resolved to send a messenger to warn 
them away from western Pennsylvania, which \ir- 
ginia claimed under her charter. He said he had 
•vUthoritv to do this because of \'ii-ginia"s second 
charter, and because of the cliiims of the Ohio 
Company. 
^^^ He chose George \\'ashington. then 

.. :wentv-one years old. to carrv the message. 
N\-».\y ;- ''Mc^~:.-^'•;*' Washington w-as a practical surveyor. He 
was skilled in woodcraft, knew much about 
Indians, and was pleasing and dignitied in his manners. 
With Christopher Gist and some others, the young 
envoy tirst found his way across the mountains to Loj:^- 
,.-, town, an Euijlish tradinij station on the Ohio, to leiirn 

Cevv^ \vj^i«$tvxa what hc could about the French. Then he pushed on 
iht'fwlir****^ "^^ ^'^ P*-^^ LeUvuf. and delivered his dispatches. The 
French commandant s;iid he would send the letters to 
Duquesne, and, until he received further orders, would 
hold all the forts. Washington returned to \"irginia. 
noting well the best points for new forts. He reported 
that the head of the Ohio was the Key to the West; 
and. accordingly. Governor Dinwiddie sent out a force of 
forty men. under William Trent, to fortify it. 




»754 

VVtUiua rtvBt 

r.^ at th« kead 

(FMiuaiy) 



CHAPTER XVII 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAK 
1754-1763 

The French, while the Enghsh were working at a 
stockade fort near the head waters of the Ohio River, 
came down the Allegheny in boats and drove thern away.^ 
They then finished the fort themselves and named it FonDuquetne 
Fort Duquesne. Colonel George Washington set out '^"''»''7th,: French 
with troops to capture the French garrison. A few 
miles from the fort he met a detachment of the enemy, 
and routed them completely. 

At Fort Necessity, which he had built in the Great 

Meadows, he was soon surrounded by the French and 

. . 1754 

Indians, and after a sharp skirmish, was forced to sur- The French and 

render. Although this expedition failed in its obiect. i"^*''" "'^--i^'^'g"" 

" * J ' (May 28) 

the young colonel had shown such valor that the Virginia 
House of Burgesses passed a vote of thanks for his 
services. 

Benjamin Franklin pub- 
lished an account of the battle 
at Great Meadows in the Penn- 
sylvania Gazette, and at the 
head of the column was the 
picture of a snake divided into 
parts, representing the colo- 
nies, with the motto, "Join or Die." All the colonies 
began to realize that a struggle for supremacy in 
America had begun. 

Training day was no longer a holiday. Troops in 
homespun rallied from every town; British grenadiers in 




B, FRANKLIN'S "JOIN OR DIE' 



I'cnjamin Franklin's 
motto 



' Read Chapman's "The Irench in the Allegheny Valley.' 



105 



io6 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



»755 

General Braddock 
meets the colonial 
governors at Alex 
andria (April 14) 



Braddock's defeat 
July 9) 



red coats and Scotch Highlanders in plaids came from 
over the sea to fight the French in Canada, and the 
Iroquois in war paints, hurried from the Mohawk to 
assist them. 

General Edward Braddock, commander-in-chief of 
the American armies, met the colonial governors at 
Alexandria and planned a campaign. Braddock him- 
self, with Washington as aide-de-camp, marched north- 
west with nearly two thousand men to take Fort 
Duquesne. 

The rough frontiersmen were put in the rear of the 
grenadiers who marched through the forest with banners 
flying and bayonets set, as if on a dress parade. Young 
Washington advised sending scouts to scour the woods; 
he tried to explain the Indian methods of fighting, and 
urged that the colonial troops should meet the first 
shock. But the proud general, who had won honors on 
the battlefields of Europe, would not listen. He said 
the Indians might terrify colonial troops, but they could 
make no impression on the king's regulars. 

The army marched on. Silence reigned in the forest. 
Not an enemy was in sight. At about ten miles from 
the fort the stately line approached two ravines covered 
with trees and long grass, where the French and their 
red allies waited. War whoops sounded shrilly out of 
the death trap, and then came the terrible struggle. 
The regulars huddled together in the open field; but 
the colonials disobeyed orders, and hid behind trees 
to fight, Indian fashion. Washington was everywhere. 
His coat was riddled with bullets, and horse after horse 
fell beneath him. One chieftain ordered his warriors 
to aim straight at the dashing young paleface. Their 
bullets splintered the trees, and mowed down others 
about him ; but Washington remained unhurt. ' ' A 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR IO7 

Manitou protects him! " shouted the warriors, and dared 
aim at him no more. 

More than half of the proud Enghsh army was slain, 
and the remainder fled in a panic/ 

General Braddock died from his wounds near Fort 
Necessity, and over his forest grave Washington, for 
lack of a chaplain, read reverently the service. It was 
soon known that the courage of Washington had saved Honors for young 
the flying remnants from death. A noted minister from ^ '"^'°" 
his pulpit extolled the courage of the heroic youth: " I 
can not but hope," he said, " that Providence has spared 
him, in so signal a manner, for some important service to 
his country." 

Afterward, when Washington was sent as a delegate 
to the House of Burgesses, the speaker thanked him 
on behalf of Virginia, for his valiant services during 
the war. The young hero arose in confusion. He 
hesitated. 

"Sit down, Mr. Washington," said the speaker, 
* ' your modesty equals your valor, and that surpasses 
the power of any language I possess." 

During the campaign of Braddock in the West, three 
expeditions were made to conquer Canada. The Aca- The Acadians 
dians were removed from their homes. They had been '^j^^^'i'^ ^yo"" 

•' Nova Scotia 

conquered, as we have seen, during Queen Anne's war; 
but they still spoke French, and secretly aided their 
kinsmen on the St. Lawrence. A fleet from Massachu- 
setts carried them away from Nova Scotia, and scattered 
them through the colonies.^ 

Sir William Johnson with Scotch grenadiers, provin- sir wiiiiam Johnson 
cials, and Iroquois defeated the French under Dieskau, defeats oieskau on 



Lake George 



1 Read Parkman's "Montcalm and Wolfe," and Sargeanl's "History of 
Braddock's Expedition." 

2 Read Longfellow's " Evangeline.' 



io8 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



General Shirley 
fails to take 
Fort Niagara 



1756 
The formal 
declaration of war 

(May) 
General Montcalm 



The Iroquois lose 
faith in the English 



1757 
The French still in 
possession of all the 
Ohio Valley 



on Lake George, and built Fort William Henry to 
protect the trails to the Hudson. 

While Governor Shirley on his way to Oswego was 
v/aitingfor re-enforcements to surround Fort Niagara, his 
Iroquois heard of Braddock's defeat, and they deserted 
in such numbers that, after having garrisoned a new fort 
at Oswego, Shirley marched back to Boston without 
attempting to take Fort Niagara. 

The following year. Great Britain issued a formal dec- 
laration of war. King Louis made Montcalm com- 
mander of the French armies, and King George sent 
more generals and more troops to conquer Canada. 

The British officers treated the colonial troops with 
contempt; they would not allow an American to hold 
high rank in the army, and ignored the advice of the 
sturdy frontiersman who knew that the French Indians 
could never be successfully fought after the British fash- 
ion. The Iroquois soon lost faith in the British. They 
laughed at the wheezy old generals, whom high living 
had made so fat. "With Indians, war feathers mean 
something," they said. "But when officers swell out 
their chests and keep their fellow soldiers standing 
before them with hats in their hands, they only breed 
cowards, and it is no wonder the British are so often 
defeated." 

In spite of the heroic efforts of John Stark, Israel Put- 
nam, and other brave scouts on the St. Lawrence, and 
of George Washington and the colonial troops on the 
western frontier, affairs went so badly that, after three 
years of war, the French still controlled the northern 
lakes and the Ohio valley. Great Britain was in despair. 
Her treasury was nearly exhausted, and affairs in the 
colonies were worse off than ever. 

Then William Pitt, the " Great Commoner," took the 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR 



109 




lead in Parliament. He learned all he could about 
Indian warfare. He saw that Ft. Duquesne was the Key 
to the West, that Louisburg gave shelter to French pri- 
vateers, that Crown Point and Ticon- 
deroga were the starting-points for 
the French expeditions 
to the south, that 
Niagara prevented 
the English fur 
trade on the lakes, 
and that Quebec 
controlled the St. 
Lawrence. He de- 
termined to gain possession of all these places. He 
said that Americans should be promoted in the ranks, 
and that they should act as scouts, and fight Indian 
fashion whenever it seemed necessary. Pitt so won the 
hearts of the Americans that they hurried to enlist for 
a new campaign. Soon twenty-five thousand colonials 
in buckskin were side by side with an equal number of 
redcoats. General Amherst and Admiral Boscawen cap- 
tured the fortress of Louisburg, with its cannon and two 
thousand men. General Forbes and Colonel Washington 
marched northwest with an army, and soon changed the 
name of Fort Duquesne to Fort Pitt. But Abercrombie 
was defeated at Ticonderoga by Montcalm. 

The following year, the British and colonial army 
swept in three great divisions toward the St. Lawrence. 
Niagara, Ticonderoga, and Crown Point were captured. 

Quebec, in command of General Montcalm, was be- 
sieged by General Wolfe, who had won distinction at 
Louisburg. During July and August Wolfe's army and 
fleet tried in vain to find a weak place in the fortress; 
but, at last, a steep path up its rocky cliff was discovered. 



1758 

Capture of Fort 
Louisburg (July 27) 

Fort Duquesne 
becomes Fort Pitt 

(Nov. 25) 



1759 
Victories at 
Niagara (July 25), 
Ticonderoga 

(July 26), 
Crown Point 

(July 31) 



no 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Battle on the Plains 
of Abraham 

(September 13) 



The death of Wolfe 
and Montcalm 



The fall of Quebec 
(September 18) 



1763 

The treaty of Paris 



The Indians and the 
French of the 
Ohio valley 



Pontiac, chief of 
the Ottawas, 
sendfi war belts 
to all the tribes 



The whole army landed, and on the morning of the thir- 
teenth of September, 1759, the English conquered the 
French on the Plains of Abraham, less than a mile from 
Quebec. Both commanders were killed.^ "I die in 
peace! " said General Wolfe. "Thank God, I shall not 
live to see Quebec surrender ! " cried General Montcalm. 
Five days later Quebec opened her gates, and, in a few 
months, all Canada was in possession of the English. 

For three years longer war was carried on with France 
by sea. The fleets of Great Britain captured the Philip- 
pine Islands, and the Island of Cuba, which was the 
key to the Spanish settlements along the Gulf of Mexico. 
To regain these important seizures, Spain ceded Florida 
to England. Then France, on who.se account Florida 
had been lost, ceded New Orleans and the French terri- 
tory west of the Mississippi to Spain. By the treaty of 
Paris, Great Britain gained Canada and Cape Breton 
and all the territory east of the Mississippi except New 
Orleans. Thus by a stroke of the iron pen of war France 
lost her possessions in America. 

The Indians of the Ohio valley found themselves 
deserted by their French allies on the St. Lawrence, 
and placed at the mercy of the English, whom they had 
long been taught to hate. The simple French peasants 
who lived about the western forts added their influence 
in arousing the warriors to action. 

They said that the great French Father was only 
asleep, and would soon come to win back his lands. 
And, half believing it themselves, they told the Indian 
converts that the blessed Jesus was a Frenchman, and 
the cruel English had crucified him. And so Pontiac, 
chief of the Ottawas, sent war belts by his fleetest mes- 



*Read Parkman's "Montcalm and Wolf^." 



THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR III 

sengers, and the warriors in the Ohio valley united 
against the "dogs in red clothes." Only Niagara, De- 
troit, and Fort Pitt withstood the attacks. More than 
twenty thousand English settlers on the frontiers of 
Virginia, Pennsylvania, and New York were driven from Defeat c f Pomiac by 
their homes. At last Colonel Bouquet won a battle in ^.trshyS""' 
the Alleghanies against their united forces. The tribes 
sued for peace. Pontiac crossed the Mississippi, and 
gave no more trouble. 

When Lieutenant-Governor Abbott arrived to take 
possession of the Ohio valley, and the cross of St. 
George replaced the lilies of France, and ' ' God save the 
king " rang out from the old palisades, the hearts of the 
simple French peasants were broken. A few, unwilling 
to swear allegiance to England, wandered down the 
Mississippi to New Orleans. Many crossed the river to 
the Spanish garrison at St. Louis. Those who remained 
became good citizens under British rule. When the 
English garrisons arrived in Florida, most of the Span- The Spaniards of 
iards emigrated to the West Indies, and soon the flag ^'T'^tJ""TT" 

" ' ° to the West Indies 

of Great Britain protected English subjects from the 
Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. 




ARMS OF GREAT BRITAIN 



CHAPTER XVIII 

THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 

The long wars, which had almost continuously laid 
waste the borders of the American colonies since King 
Philip's war, were over. The Indians were subdued, the 
French were conquered, and the Spaniards had quitted 
Florida. There had been great loss of life. More than 
thirty thousand brave soldiers lay sleeping under the 
turf. But from the handful of emigrants who landed at 
The population of Jamestown, the English in America had increased to 

Ihe English colonies ^^^^ ^^q milHonS of pCOplc. 

They were scattered along the seacoast in thirteen 
separate colonies: New Hampshire, Massachusetts, 
which included Maine, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New 
York, which claimed Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsyl- 
vania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, 
South Carohna, and Georgia. 
The civil All the colonies had governors appointed by the king, 

eovernment ^^ ^^^ pfoprictors, cxcept Conuccticut and Rhode Island. 

The law-making power was vested in an assembly and 
a council which together formed the legislature. The 
people, with certain suffrage restrictions, elected the 
assembly; the governor chose the council. The legisla- 
ture had power to vote taxes and frame laws ; but the 
governor exercised the right of veto. In the royal and 
proprietary colonies, except Maryland, a bill, passed by 
the legislature and signed by the governor, must be sent 
to England for approval, and might be '• disallowed " by 
the king at any time within three years. To avoid the 
royal veto, measures were often passed for two years, 
and then re-enacted for two years more. 

[112] 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



113 



Notwithstanding the losses through war and the re- 
strictions on trade, the httle commonwealths had pros- 
pered. Their ships were found on all the seas; they 
carried grain from Pennsylvania and Maryland; bales of 
furs from New York; ship timber from Maine and 
Georgia; tobacco, indigo, rice, and pitch from Virginia 
and the Carolinas; and such vast products from the fish- 
eries of New England that the whaling fleet of Nan- 
tucket alone was two hundred and forty sail. 







A COLONIAL MANSION 

This increase of wealth brought luxury. John Adams, weaith brings 
of Massachusetts, wrote in his diary, about this time, of '"""'^ 
one home where he dined. He said it was fit for a 
prince, with its Turkish carpets, painted hangings, 
marble tables, damasks, and counterpanes, and clocks 
and silver. 

Many citizens kept a coach and pair, and a few rode 
in great style behind four horses, with negro slaves for 
drivers. 

After th& French and Indian war was over, the Eng- sodainfe 
lish officers lingered in the larger towns. There were 
military reviews, dinners, and tea drinkings, and almost 
8 



114 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



Dress of the period 



Navigation laws 
restrict trade 



1750 
Manufactures 
prohibited 



as much amusement and folly as at the court of the 
Georges. 

Gentlemen of fashion wore, for dress suits, velvet 
coats, satin waistcoats with f^ap pockets, trousers to the 
knee, long silk hose, and high-heeled, pointed shoes 
with silver or gold buckles; wigs were now little seen. 
So many wigs had gone askew or been lost in the tan- 
gled forests during the war that the British officers, who 
set the fashion, declared they were a nuisance. Gentle- 
men generally wore their own hair powdered, and tied 
behind in a queue. 

Ladies, whose mothers had been content with home- 
spun, wore satin or taffeta gowns over wide hoops, with 
dainty kerchiefs on the neck. The hair was dressed 
high, and black patches on the cheek or chin were sup- 
posed to improve their beauty. 

Now Parliament had watched these young colonies 
becoming more and more prosperous, and had already 
made an effort to reap some benefit from them. Naviga- 
tion laws, as we have seen, confined most of the colo- 
nial trade to Great Britain, When Maryland, Pennsyl- 
vania, and some other provinces began to carry shiploads 
of grain into British ports, a tax was put upon American 
corn to protect the British farmers. And when Ameri- 
cans began to manufacture their own wares, the law was 
made that raw wool should be br.ought to England to be 
made into cloth, and crude iron to be made into tools. 
One colony was prohibited from taking into another 
products which might be secured in England. It was 
said that a colonial dame could not lawfully take across 
the boundary line a ball of yarn for an afternoon's 
knitting. 

It was only strict early training that kept Americans 
from all becoming smugglers with such laws as these. 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



115 



As it was, there were men in every town on the coast 

who had wares stored away in cellars and attics which Engian/organizes 

they would not care to have the revenue officers see. n^^ provinces 

England organized her new territory 
into provinces. The Province of Que- 
bec was created in Canada; and Florida 
was divided into East and West Florida. 
All the western valley, from the moun- 
tains to the Mississippi and from the 
Great Lakes to West Florida, was set 
apart for the Indians. To protect the 
new provinces from the French and the 
Spaniards, an army of ten thousand 
British troops was scattered through the 
colonies. The expenses of these garri- 
sons were to be partly borne by the 
Americans. And, to raise revenue, Par- 
liament renewed the tax on sugar and 
molasses imported outside the British West Indies, put j_g- 

new taxes on coffee, French and East Indian goods, a tax on sugar 

. - , molasses, and a few 

mdigo, and Spanish and Portuguese wmes, and voted to other articles 
enforce the navigation laws more strictly. 

Meantime "writs of assistance" were issued. With writs of assistance 
these writs petty constables might search private dwell- 
ings where they even suspected goods were unlawfully 

entered. Sometimes there were riots when these writs , 

1701 

were served. James Otis, of Boston, a brilliant lawyer james otis pleads 
in the pay of the king, resigned his position to plead in t^e'^'ri'tr'^' ^^'""*' 
the courts against the writs. 

It had long been evident that the colonies should unite 
in such a way that, in time of war, an equal tax might 
be laid, both for money and men. Those out of danger 
had not been so ready to furnish troops as those who had 
suffered directly. 




ii6 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



1765 

Parliament passes 
the Stamp Act 
(March 22) 



Sons of Liberty 



Now, however, the oppressions of Parliament affected 
all alike and rumors of new taxes came on every packet. 

"What more will be done to restrict our trade?" 
asked the people anxiously. 

The Stamp Act was passed. By this measure every 
written document, to be legal, must have a stamp with 
the royal seal, and the lowest price for the bits of paper 
was a shilling. 

The Americans were willing to bear their share of the 
public burdens; but this tax was not by their own vote, 
and might easily lead to all sorts of oppression. Land 
owners in England voted for taxes through their repre- 
sentatives in Parliament. " If we could send delegates 
to Parliament we would be willing to be taxed by Parlia- 
ment," said the land owners in America, " but as this is 
impracticable, we are willing to vote taxes for the king 
in our own general courts." 

Meanwhile the king and his Parliament became more 
aggressive. " Every man in England," wrote Benjamin 
Franklin, who was then in London, " regards himself as 
a piece of a sovereign over America, seems to jostle 
himself into the throne with the king, and talks of our 
subjects in the colonies." There were many, however, 
even among the members of Parliament, who sided with 
the Americans. When some one said in debate that the 
colonists were "children of England's planting," Colonel 
Barre, who had fought by the side of Wolfe at Quebec, 
and knew something about the colonies, described how 
the Americans had been driven by persecutions to find 
homes in the wilderness, and declared that instead of 
being "children of England's planting," they were 
" sons of liberty." When the words of Barre reached 
the colonies, "Sons of Liberty " clubs were organized. 

There was great indignation over the Stamp Act. In 



THE THIRTEEN COLONIES 



117 



the Virginia Assembly, Patrick Henry made a great speech Patrick Henry in 
against it. ' ' Caesar had his Brutus, ' ' he cried, ' ' Charles gurg^ir °' 
the First his Cromwell, and George III ["Treason! 
Treason! " shouted some king's men] may profit by 
their example," continued the patriot, and added: "If 

that be treason, make the most of it! " 

. 1765 

George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, and other The first Virginia 

young Virginians listened to Henry's speech, and agreed ^^^°^''^^ (^^y'9) 
with every word of it. 
Henry drew up a set of 
resolutions on the fly- 
leaf of an old law book, 
declaring that the 
settlers of Virginia 
brought with 
them the privi- 
leges of English- 
men; that, since 
taxation by their 
own representa- 
tives was a priv- 
ilege of English- 
men, it was a 
privilege of Vir- 
ginians, who would not consent to taxation without rep- 
resentation. ^ 

The boldness of the Virginians inspired the other 
colonies. They refused to use stamped paper. 

' ' I will cram the stamps down their throats with my 
sword! " cried a British officer. 

But the stamped paper was not bought. Much of it 
was made into bonfires by angry mobs. When the 
time came for the Act to go into effect, all the stamp 
officers had resigned. They did not dare attempt to 
enforce the law. 




PATRICK HENRY 



Ii8 



COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



The Stamp Act 
Congress at New 
York (October 7) 

The Declaration 
of Rights 



Non-importation 
agreements 



Franklin before the 
House of Commons 



1766 
Parliament repeals 
the Stamp Act 
(March 18) 



That same year a congress of delegates from the 
colonies met at New York to deliberate what to do in 
this crisis with the mother country. A Declaration of 
Rights and Grievances was drawn up and sent to Parlia- 
ment. The Declaration of Rights maintained that 
Americans were subjects of the king; that it was the 
natural right of a British subject to vote his own tax, 
and that because Americans were not represented in 
Parliament, Parliament could not tax them. 

It was agreed by the merchants to purchase no more 
wares in Great Britain until the Stamp Act was repealed. 
"Daughters of Liberty" spun yarn and wove it into 
cloth; homespun jeans took the place of satins and 
taffetas, and yarn hose were worn instead of silken ones. 
It seemed like the return of the good old Puritan days 
to see a spinning wheel in every home. 

Now the large party in Parliament, led by William 
Pitt and Edmund Burke, who thought the Stamp Act 
unjust, advocated its repeal. Benjamin Franklin was 
called before a committee of the House of Commons 
and spoke in behalf of his countrymen. He said the 
colonists had borne more than their share of the ex- 
penses of the French war; that they would never submit 
to taxation without representation, and, if driven too far, 
would manufacture their own wares, and stop trading 
with England altogether. . 

After a long and bitter debate. Parliament repealed 
the Stamp Act. 



> \ 



The Council of the London Company 
The second charter of Jamestown 
Martial law 
Indented servants 
Virginia \ Negro slaves 

The First Colonial Assembly 
A royal province 
Indian war 
Bacon's rebellion 

Proprietary government 
Settled by Catholics 
Maryland l Assembly passes Toleration Act 
A royal province 
Again a proprietary government 

One proprietary government 
The Carolinas -^ . I North Carolina 

Koyal provmces < r. .. r- i- 
^ '^ I South Carolma 



O 



Geoi^ia 



Maine 



New Hampshire 



Vermont 



' ' In trust for the poor ' ' 

Settlement 

A royal province 

j Patented by Gorges and Mason 
I Bought by Massachusetts 

Patented by Gorges and Mason 

Under protection of Massachusetts 

A royal province 

•J Claimed by both New Hampshire and New York 

[ The Mayflower 

(- T)i ^u The Compact 

Plymouth <,' t,, ^ j. 
■' I Ihe Landing 

(^ Charter from Council for New England 



Massachusetts 



' Salem 
Royal Charter 
Boston 
Immigration ceases 



f Mass. Bay 

Mass. Bay { Union of four colonies \ P^y™o"th 

1^- -Du-r 1 Connecticut 

King Philips war [ New Haven 



Charter annulled 
A royal province 
Salem witchcraft 

!S ttl e t i Providence Plantation 
I Rhode Island Plantation 
Charter unites the colonies 

, c- ..1 4. \ Connecticut Colony 

( Settlement ■{■.■, „ r- i 

„ . , \ / New Haven Colony 

Connecticut -( n j 

1 Pequod war 

' Royal charter unites colonies 
(Concluded on next page) 



> (U 

o > 



-a j3 




Bt^ 












§"§ 


s 


T3 ca 


s 




1) 
> 

a, 


H ^ 


"3 


^§ 


S' 



^U 



["9] 



New York 



New Jersey 



U 



j Settlement by the Dutch < New Netherlands 

The Dutch West India Company 

Patroons 

An English royal province 

Settlement by the Dutch -j New Netherlands 

I East Jersey sold to Penn 
and other Quakers 
West Jersey sold to Quakers 
New Jersey becomes a royal province 

f Settled by Swedes and Dutch 
I English proprietary government 
Pennsylvania < Immigration of Quakers 
Philadelphia 
[ Penn's treaty with the Indians 

( New Sweden 
I A Dutch province 
Delaware i An English province 

Bought by William Penn and finally allowed sepa- 
ls rate assembly under governor of Pennsylvania 



U 



King William's War 
I 689-1 697 

Queen Anne's War 
1701-1713 



King George's War 
I 744-1 748 



French and Indian War 
1754-1763 



I French and Canadian Indians against 
English and Iroquois 
Treaty of Ryswick 

i French, Canadian Indians, and Spaniards 
against English 
Treaty of Utrecht; Acadia ceded to Eng- 
lish 

i French and Canadian Indians against 
English 
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 

French and Canadian Indians against 
English and Iroquois 

Treaty of Paris; Spain cedes Florida to 
-{ England; France surrenders her terri- 
tory east of Mississippi River to Eng- 
land, and New Orleans and all posses- 
sions west of the Mississippi to Spain 



. Colonial Prosperity 



[120] 




CHAPTER XIX 

r 

CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 

Although the Stamp Act was repealed, King George 
and Charles Townshend, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 
declared it was necessary to prove that the government The Townshend Acts 
had the right to tax the colonies. So Parliament laid a 
tax on tea and a few other articles, established a Board 
of Trade at Boston, which should act independently of 
colonial regulations, and legalized writs of assistance. 
To enforce the laws, more grenadiers were sent to 
America, and a "Mutiny Act" demanded that the 
colonies should provide the royal troops with quarters 
and certain specified supplies. Merchants then signed 
non-importation agreements, and "Sons of Liberty" 
and other patriotic associations agreed to neither eat, 
drink, nor wear anything imported from England until 
the odious taxes were removed. 

" Send over an army and fleet to reduce the dogs to 
reason," wrote one royal governor to the king, and the CoionJai assemblies 
governors in several colonies dissolved the legislatures. (ApruL) 

[121] 



Non-importation 
agreements 



1768 



122 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 

General 'Gage sent down to Boston two regiments from 

British troops in Halifax. They landed on Sabbath day, and entered the 

^°**°° town with bayonets set and drums beating, as if they were 

invading a foreign country. The people quoted the 

statutes that troops could only be quartered in Boston 

when the barracks in the harbor were full, and refused 

to give them lodging. " It is no use to argue in this 

country, where every man studies law," wrote Gage. 

He came to Boston, and placed the city under strict 

guard, with cannon pointing down the streets. 

Lord North becomes When Lord North, who had been one of the most en- 

prime minister thusiastic advocatcs of colonial taxation, became prime 

(January) ^ 

minister in England, the cause of freedom seemed hope- 
less. One night in Boston, a crowd surrounded the 
The Boston massacre guards, who werc disputing with some citizens. The 
{March 5) soldicrs fired into the people, killing five and wounding 
several others.^ This m.assacre at Boston created intense 
excitement. Samuel Adams, in the name of the town, 
demanded the withdrawal of the troops, and they were 
transported to an island in the harbor. 
The Townshend All the TowHshend taxes were finally repealed except 

taxes repealed ex- the tax ou tea. Now, it was the principle of taxation 

cept the tax on tea ^ •* 

(April 12) without representation that the people were fighting. 

Tea was denounced as a "pernicious weed," and dried 
leaves of raspberry, sage, and sassafras were brewed in 
its stead. Merchants were required to sign pledges not 
to sell tea, and when one merchant in Boston was found 
selling contrary to agreement, a post was set up with 
the names of the tea importers written on it, pointing 
toward his shop. Some one attempted to break the post 
down, and while a crowd was gathering to chase him 
away, he fired a shotgun and killed a German boy eleven 
years old. Five hundred schoolmates walked in proces- 
sion to the grave. Exciting events were preparing the 



» Read Kidder's " The Boston Massacre. 



CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 1 23 

minds of these children for the terrible struggle in which 
they would themselves take a part later on. Trees 
on the greens were called Liberty Trees, and there 
were nightly meetings around them. In Narragan- 
sett Bay, the revenue ship Gaspee was burned, and the The revenue ship 
Chief Justice of Rhode Island refused to send the offend- ^''''^^^ju„e gT 
ers to England for trial. And so the fight went on in 
the North. The colonies of the South did not feel the 
taxes so heavily as those of the North. They had rice, 
tobacco, and indigo to exchange for wares from Great 
Britain. But they were too patriotic to submit to op- 
pression. " I know not what course others may take," 
exclaimed Patrick Henry, • ' but as for me, give me * 

liberty or give me death. " When the governor dissolved 
the assembly of Virginia for its boldness of speech, the 
members held a meeting immediately after, and George 
Washington presented a resolution to import from Great 
Britain no more merchandise that was taxed. 

All the colonies were moved by the same impulse; 
yet some people in each colony sided with the British 
government. These were largely merchants from the 
West Indies, who had warehouses in America, and 
officials who held office, and those whom the splendor of 
a crown so dazzled that they could not see the chains 
they wore. Those who were willing to obey the meas- 
ures of the government were called Tories; those who Tories and whigs 
opposed the unconstitutional acts of Parliament were 
called Whigs. 

The ships, with their cargoes of tea, sailed into the 
American ports, and were anchored. At Boston, the 
governor could not be induced to send the ships back to 
England. The Whigs met in Faneuil Hall to protest 



1 Read Kidder's " The Boston Massacre." • 



124 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 




SAMUEL ADAMS 
1722-1803 



against the landing, until the gatherings were so large 
,»-- that it became necessary to adjourn to the Old South 

The Boston tea party meetinghousc. On the sixteenth of December, 1773, 
ecem er 16) Samuel Adams presided. The church was packed to 
the doors, and the pavement outside was crowded 
with patriots, who were waiting for the last word 
from the governor. When the committee re- 
turned with his refusal to send the tea back, 
Adams said, in a loud voice: "The meeting 
declares it can do nothing more to save the 
country!" "Who knows," cried some 
one, ' ' how tea will mingle with salt wa- 
ter } " War whoops sounded. A voice 
called out: "Boston Harbor a teapot to- 
night ! " " Hurrah ! Hurrah ! " shouted 
fifty men who, painted like Mohawks and 
armed with hatchets, hurried down to the wharf. They 
boarded the vessels, and tossed three hundred, and fifty 
broken chests of tea into the harbor. Crowds witnessed 
the action in silence, and dispersed to their homes. In 
the morning, the tea thrown up by the tides lay in long 
stretches along the shore. ' 

The crisis had come. Paul Revere and others rode in 
haste to Philadelphia and New York to tell the people 
what Boston had done. The tea ships at Philadelphia 
were sent back to England, the cargoes at Charleston 
were landed, but rotted away in damp cellars, and at 
none of the ports was it allowed to be sold. 

Parliament closed the port of Boston. No ships 
The Boston Port Act might enter or leave the Harbor. All the colonies sent 
aid overland, or by way of Marblehead, which offered 
her port free of charge to the merchants. Even from 



1774 



'Read Drake's "Tea Leaves." 



CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 12$ 

the far frontiers, where the pioneers toiled in the wilder- 
ness, contributions were sent to Boston. 

Parliament also passed the Massachusetts bill, which The Massachusetts 
violated charter rights by providing for a military gov- tlin blii InTthT'' 
ernor of the colony and forbidding public meetings with- Quartering bin 
out his consent; the Transportation bill, which gave the 
governor power to transport any one accused of murder 
in resisting the laws to another colony or to England 
for trial; and the Quartering bill, which legalized the 
quartering of troops at private houses. Then Parlia- 
ment passed the Quebec bill, which annexed to the The Quebec bin 
Province of Quebec, the country between Pennsylvania, 
the Mississippi River, the Ohio River, and the Great 
Lakes. The territory was claimed by Massachusetts, 
Connecticut, and Virginia under their charters, and most 
of the colonies had shared in the expense and danger 
of winning it from the French. 

There was tremendous excitement over these unjust 
measures. If affairs went on at this rate, what would 
be the end .^ Franklin's old motto, "Join or die," was 
printed and circulated, and conventions were called to The congressional 
choose delegates to a continental congress at Philadel- 
phia. In our forefathers' day, as in our own, there 
were some who did not believe in experiments. One 
member of the South Carolina legislature laughed at the 
idea of a convention of the colonies: "What kind of a 
dish will a congress from the different British colonies 
make.^ " said he. " New England will throw in fish and 
onions, the Middle States flaxseed and flour, Maryland 
and Virginia will add tobacco. North Carolina pitch, 
tar, and turpentine. South Carolina rice and indigo, and 
Georgia will sprinkle the whole composition with saw- 
dust. That is the absurd jumble you will make if you 
attempt a union between the thirteen British provinces. " 



126 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



1774 
The First Con- 
tinental Congress 
(September 5 to 
October 26) 



Creed forgotten 
for Liberty 



But another member retorted* " I would not choose 
the gentleman who made these objections for my cook; 
but I venture to say that if the colonies proceed to 
appoint deputies to a Continental Congress, they will 
prepare a dish fit to be presented to any crowned head 
in Europe." 

The delegates from South Carolina were the first to 
arrive at Philadelphia. Those from all the other colo- 
nies except Georgia soon joined them, and met in con- 
vention in Carpenters' Hall. 

In this Continental Congress were some of the most 
distinguished men in America. From Connecticut came 
Roger Sherman, "who never said a foolish thing in 
his life;" from Massachusetts came Samuel Adams, 
"whose head was wanted badly in London," and his 
cousin, John Adams, a future president; from S6uth 
Carolina were the brilliant John Rutledge and his 
brother Edward, who had just listened to the debates 
in Parliament on the tea tax; from New Jersey was 
William Livingston, whose letters to Edmund Burke on 
colonial affairs had made the great orator the champion 
of the patriots; from New York was John Jay, whose 
" pen was the finest in America;" from Virginia were 
Washington, the hero of battlefields, Patrick Henry, the 
orator, and Richard Henry Lee, who, at the head of 
his volunteers, had made a bonfire of stamps. 

It was, indeed, a coming together of different religious 
creeds and political views. Many thought that Massa- 
chusetts had been too radical in resisting the king, 
John Jay, of New York, opposed the motion to open the 
convention with prayer, because, he said, no one could 
expect Baptists, Presbyterians, Congregationalists, Epis- 
copalians, Quakers, and Catholics to unite in worship. 
But Samuel Adams, from "stiff-necked" Massachusetts, 



CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION 12/ 

arose, and said he was no bigot, and could hear a prayer 
from a gentleman of piety who was at the same time a 
patriot. He had heard that Mr. Duche, an Episcopal 
clergyman, deserved that title, and therefore he moved 
that Mr. Duche read prayers. Samuel Adams acted 
wisely in this. If a rigid Puritan could yield his creed 
for. the country's welfare, all were willing to do so. The 
prayer was read. 

Then Patrick Henry, in the first great speech of the Patrick Henry's 
Congress, exclaimed, "British oppression has effaced ,he'congress" 
the boundaries of the several colonies; the distinctions 
between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers, and 
New Englanders are no more. ... I am not a Vir- 
ginian, but an American ! " 

Thus united, the delegates drew up addresses to the 
people of the colonies, the Canadians, the people of 
Great Britain, and the king. And then they issued a 
'•Declaration of Rights," in which, as British subjects, The •• Declaration 
they demanded a share in enacting their own laws and ° '^ '* 
imposing their own taxes;* the right of petition and 
trial by jury; and they protested against a standing army 
without their consent, the taxation of the people without 
their consent, the dissolving of assemblies, the quarter- 
ing of troops in time of peace, and the trial of men with- 
out a jury. William Pitt, then Earl of Chatham, said 
in the House of Lords: "The histories of Greece and 
Rome give us nothing equal to this Declaration of 
Rights, and all attempts to impose servitude upon such 
a mighty continental nation must be in vain." 

*See extract from " Declaration of Rights," 1774. Page 407. 



CHAPTER XX 




THE REVOLUTION 

1775- 1781 

vHE king returned no answer to the address 
to himself nor to the Declaration of Rights 
drawn up by the Continental Congress. 
He sent orders to the royal governors to 
prepare for war, and equipped a fleet with 
ten thousand British soldiers to help them. 
General Gage, the military governor of 
Massachusetts, seized the public stores at 
Boston, and fortified Boston Neck. 

Meanwhile the Assembly of Massachu- 
setts met in Cambridge in spite of the 
governor. They elected John Hancock 
president, and chose a Committee of 
Safety with power to act for the common welfare; they 
resolved to enlist twelve thousand "minute men" to 
defend their rights, and to invite the other colonies to 
Paul Revere"' arouses swcll thc numbcr to tweuty thousand. They collected 
the towns (April 18) ammuuitiou at Concord, six- 
teen miles from Boston, and 
at Salem and other towns. 
Battles of Lexington When, at midnight, on the 
eighteenth of April, eight 
hundred grenadiers crept out 
of Boston to seize the stores 
at Concord, the lanterns from 
the steeple of the North 

Church warned the watchman of Charlestown, and sent 
Paul Revere and others speeding away to arouse the 
[128] 



Massachusetts 
prepares for war 

1775 



and Concord 
(April 19) 




THE REVOLUTION 



129 



sleeping towns. ^ Minute men gathered at Lexington to 
meet the British troops as the sun was just rising over 
the hills. "Disperse, rebels," cried the British, "down 
with your arms, and disperse ! " Shots were fired. 
Seven Americans were killed and several wounded. 
The minute men fell back, bearing away their dead. 

The Revolution had begun. 

The British moved on to Concord and destroyed what 
stores they could find. Meanwhile, hundreds of minute 




PAUL REVERE'S RIDE 



men were gathering. As the British retreated toward 
Boston, the patriots fired at them Indian fashion from 
behind fences and trees. A re-enforcement of nine 
hundred regulars at Lexington covered their flight; but 
when, at last, they reached Boston, they had lost three 
hundred men, and just barely escaped capture. 

Swift messengers carried the news of the battle at 
Lexington to all the colonies.^ John Stark, the ranger, John stark and 
mounted his horse, and rode at the head of several hun- ^^'''-' P"'°*°» 
dred New Hampshire men to join the army at Cam- 



> Read Longfellow's " Paul Revere's Ride." 2 Read Coffin's" Boys of '76." 
9 



I30 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



Colonial troops 
encamp around 
Boston 




Ticonderoga 
captured (May lo) 



The Second Con- 
tinental Congress 
meets ^May lo) 

A federal union 
formed with 
Congress the 
executive power 

"Bills of Credit" 



bridge; Israel Putnam, of Connecticut, left his plow, and, 
rousing his neighbors, hastened away; at Enfield, word 
came of the battle on Sunday, and Captain Abbe, 
scarred in the wars with the French, received the mes- 
sage at church. He stole quietly out 
and played on his drum. The people 
hurried to join him, and left the parson 
alone. The drummer marched round 
and round the meetinghouse until a hun- 
dred and forty men had fallen into line 
to start for Cambridge the following day. 
Recruits rallied with such enthusiasm 
that when the British generals, Howe, 
Burgoyne, and Clinton, sailed up the bay, 
they found Boston surrounded by twenty 
thousand men. 

Meanwhile it seemed of the utmost im- 
portance to prevent the French in Canada from joining 
the British. Ethan Allen, with the "Green Mountain 
Boys" of Vermont, captured Ticonderoga on Lake 
Champlain " in the name of the Great Jehovah and the 
Continental Congress." Crown Point surrendered soon 
after. The " Keys of Canada" were thus secured, and 
vast military stores were hauled to Cambridge. 

The Second Continental Congress at Philadelphia, 
with John Hancock, president, addressed anothei peti- 
tion to the king, and, while awaiting his reply, formed 
a Federal Union which might have the power to make 
treaties of peace or alliance, declare war, and regulate 
trade. Congress issued "bills of credit" or paper 
money, to the amount of two millions of dollars, which 
the " United Colonies " promised to redeem. It adopted 



ISRAEL PUTNAM 
1718-1790 



Washington, 
commander-ill- 



THE REVOLUTION I3I 

the troops before Boston as the Continental army, George 
and elected George Washington commander in chief by 

unanimous vote. chief of the Con- 

It was a bold act to take control of an army to fight 
the king's troops. ' ' I fear that this day will mark the 
downfall of my reputation," said Washington to Patrick 
Henry. Yet the noble man accepted the dangerous 
honor, and resolved to lay his life on the altar of his 
country. 

General Gage issued a proclamation offering pardon 
to those who would return to their allegiance, except the 
"ringleaders," John Hancock and Samuel Adams. The 
patriots in homespun scouted the offer. On the even- 
ing of June 16, about a thousand men marched to 
fortify Bunker Hill in Charlestown, which overlooked a 
part of Boston. Finding Breed's Hill a better location, 
they worked all night to throw up earthworks at that 
point. At dawn the British were amazed to see a line The battle of 
of defense across the hill above them. They fired from 
the frigates in the harbor ; but the toilers kept on at 
their task. At noon, three thousand British soldiers 
under General Howe, crossed the harbor ; they landed 
near Charlestown, and, while the rest of the British 
army watched them from the roofs of the houses in 
Boston, they moved up the hill. "Don't fire till ycu 
see the white of their eyes ! " were the orders of the 
American officer. When the Continentals fired, it was 
with deadly effect. The British retreated. They set 
fire to Charlestown, and again climbed the fortified hill. 
Again they were driven back, and once again they 
advanced. This third attack ended in a retreat of the 
patriots, because their powder gave out ; but the defense 



Bunker Hill 
(June 17) 



132 AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 

was SO brilliant that the battle of Bunker Hill is one of 

the most famous battles of the war. 

It was evident that Sir Guy Carleton, governor of 
The capture of Canada, was planning the conquest of New York, and 

(Novem^ber 12) Congrcss seut two expeditions across the border to 

attack him. General Montgomery captured Montreal, 
The attack aud hurried on to Quebec, where he met Colonel Bene- 

on Quebec ^j^^ Amold. With less than a thousand men they laid 

(December 31) ■' 

siege to the city. After three weeks of waiting they 
made an assault; Montgomery was killed, and Arnold 
was wounded. The remnant of the army retreated, and 
Canada was left in control of the British. 
General Washington Meantime General Washington reviewed his troops 

reviews his troops ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^£ ^^ ^j^ ^^^^ ^^-^^ ^^jjj ^^^^^^ ^^ 

at Cambridge 

(Julys) Cambridge. The men were poorly clad, and had weap- 

ons of all patterns and sizes; few of them knew what 
military discipline was. The British armies were fur- 
nished with brass artillery, and equipped with the best 
that art had invented. They were fresh from victories 
on the battlefields of Europe. They had sympathizers 
in the colonies to help them, and Canadians and Indians 
on the frontiers to rally at their call. Surely the odds 
were against the " rabble " that camped around Boston. 
Now the colonies still acknowledged George III as 
The colonies still their kiug. They still awaited his answer to their peti- 
toyai to King George ^-^^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ fighting ouly Parliament for usurping 

their rights; and so the Union flag at Cambridge with 
its thirteen bars of alternate red and white, to represent 
the colonies, had the British cross in the corner. But 
the hearts of even the bravest were heavy as they gazed 
on its fluttering folds. How would this struggle for 
liberty end ? 
The siege of Boston Washiugtou threw up earthworks around Boston, 
determined to dislodge the British. It was not an easy 



THE REVOLUTION 



133 



1776 
The British evacuate 
Boston (March 17) 



The king hires 
Hessians to fight 
his colonies 



task to hold so many thousand men from so many dif- 
ferent colonies in subjection. He forbade gambling, 
saying: " In this time of distress men may find enough 
to do in the service of God and their country without 
abandoning themselves to vice." He declared if any 
man in action skulked, hid, or retreated from the enemy 
without orders, he should instantly be shot down as an 
example of cowardice. After a siege of ten months, 
Boston was again in the hands of her friends. The 
British sailed away for Halifax, and Washington hurried 
away to defend New York from a threatened attack. 

Meanwhile, the only reply the king made to the sec- 
ond petition of Congress was to call the Americans 
"rebels," and send over more troops. Because the 
British people were so unwilling to fight their own kins- 
men, he employed an army of seventeen thousand Hes- 
sians to help the regulars. Congress now resolved to 
fight the king as well as Parliament. 

The colonies called themselves States, selected their The colonies caii 
own governors, and instructed their delegates in Con- ItdTetTthdr"' 
gress to vote for independence. By declaring independ- own governors 
ence of Great Britain they hoped to rid themselves 
of the name "rebel," and thus be able to form 
treaties of alliance with other nations. Richard 
Henry Lee offered in Congress the resolution that 
"these United Colonies are, and of right ought 
to be, free and independent States, and all polit- 
ical connections between them and the State of 
Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dissolved." 
John Adams seconded the resolution. Then Thomas 
Jefferson, of Virginia, John Adams, of Massachusetts, 
Benjamin Franklin, of Pennsylvania, Roger Sher- 
man, of Connecticut, and Robert R. Livingston, of New 
York, were appointed a committee to prepare the Decla- 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 
1743-1826 



134 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



1776 
The Declaration of 
Independence 

(July 4) 




JOHN HANCOCK 
1737-179J 



ration of Independence. The famous instrument was 
written by Thomas Jefferson, chairman of the committee, 
almost exactly as we have it to-day.' 

On the fourth of July. 1776, John 
Hancock, president of the Congress, 
wrote his name in large script, which ^ 
' ' the king of England could read with- 
out spectacles." and the other mem- 
bers signed the paper later. There 
was now no retreat. "We must all 
hang together. ■■ said one. "Yes," said 
Franklin, "we must hang together, or 
we shall hang separately!" When the 
news of the Declaration, which made the Americans 
free, was carried over the country, the \\'higs celebrated 
the event; In Philadelphia the "Liberty Bell" in the old 
Statehouse was rung till it almost cracked; in New York 
the lead statue of King George was pulled down and 
melted into "bullets, and the royal arms were torn down 
from the City Hall; at Boston the Declaration was read 
in Faneuil Hall to an immense throng of patriots, 
and at \\'illiamsburg. Charleston, and Savannah 
bonfires were built. Tories tied for protection to 
the British armies; indeed, it was hardly safe 
for a Tory to be seen on the street of any city. 
Washington ordered the Declaration 
to be read at the head of each 
division of the army in New 
r— . .,.. York. He was encamped 

■-^- '"'<"*-% in New York City and on 
' Brooklvn Heights with 
\1 about ten thousand men. 







4l>?i:w' 



v." THE 

STATEHOUSf.. 
OR INDEPENDENCE 
HALL, PHILADELPHIA 



1 See the ** Declaration of 
ladependence," page 133. 



THE REVOLUTION 135 

while Gen. William Howe lay facing him on Staten 
Island. On the twelfth of July Admiral Lord Howe 
arrived with a fleet. The admiral sent a dispatch to 
" George Washington, Esquire,'' in the hope of some 
friendly compromise. The commander of the American 
armies refused to receive a message thus addressed. 
Howe then wrote to "George Washington, etc.^ etc., 
etc.'' "The and-so-forth may mean as big a title as 
this upstart American hkes, " said the admiral. But 
Washington again refused to degrade his office. 

Meantime William Moultrie completed a fort on 
Sullivan's Island, near Charleston, S. C A Brit- 
ish fleet soon attacked Fort Sullivan. During the The batue of Fon 
engagement the flag of blue, with a white crescent "'"jju^e28)''*^* 
bearing the legend " Liberty," was cut down by a ball 
of the enemy. It was thought the fort had struck its 
colors; but up sprang Sergeant William Jasper, crying. Sergeant wiiiiam 
" I '11 fix the flag to a halberd, and place it on the mer- *"' 
Ion of the bastion next the enemy! " And he planted it 
there in the midst of the thickest fire. The sun went 
down with the flag still flying. During the night the 
British fleet withdrew for New York. 

In August the British and Hessian troops crossed over The banie of Long 
from Staten Island to Long Island, and attacked the ^^" "£^127) 
Americans outside the "intrenchments on Brooklyn 
Heights. A hard fought battle resulted in the loss of 
nearly a thousand patriots. Howe then waited for the 
fleet in the bay, under command of his brother, Admiral 
Lord Howe, to storm the fort at Brooklyn."' 

On the second night after the battle, however, Wash- 
ington withdrew his army to New York, under cover of a 
dense fog; General Howe pursued; Washington re- 



* See map page 275. * See map page 141. 



136 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



The British occupy 
New York, Fort 
Washington, and 
Fort Lee 



Nathan Hale 
hanged as a spy 
(September 22) 




NATHAN HALE 

Congress abandons 
Philadelphia 



1776-1777 
The Articles of 
Confederation 
are framed 



treated to White Plains, and then to North Castle, 
where he faced about and waited to give battle. Howe 
did not venture an attack at that place. He turned to 
march into New Jersey, and on his way captured Fort 
Washington on Manhattan Island, and Fort Lee on the 
Jersey shore. Meantime Washington sent Captain 
Nathan Hale to examine the British camp on Long 
Island. He was arrested and hanged as a spy. No 
clergyman was allowed to visit him, and his letters to 
his mother and sister were destroyed. His last words 
were : "I only regret that I have but one life to give to 
my country." 

Washington left General Charles Lee at North Castle 
to guard the Hudson, and crossed that river to prevent 
Howe from marching upon Philadelphia. Lord Cornwallis 
pursued him. Washington sent to General Charles Lee 
for help; but Lee responded slowly, and a few days later 
was taken prisoner. The dauntless Washington re- 
treated with four thousand half-starved troops through 
New Jersey, and crossed the Delaware, tearing up the 
bridges and taking the boats. The British then camped 
in the towns east of the Delaware, waiting for the river 
to freeze that they might advance on Philadelphia. 

Congress gave to Washington almost supreme com- 
mand in military affairs, and, because Philadelphia 
was unsafe, abandoned the Quaker City for Baltimore. 
There was much for Congress to do. Harbors were 
unprotected, and military stores nearly exhausted. Con- 
gress drew up articles of confederation to submit to the 
States. It appointed committees to recruit the army, to 
create a navy, to correspond with friendly nations abroad, 
and to increase the revenues. Thus, from its very ne- 
cessities, the Continental Congress began to lay the first 
foundations of a future national government. 



THE REVOLUTION 



137 



The confidence in Washington, the commander of the 
Httle American army, soon increased. The noble leader 
did not lose courage over his defeats. On Christmas 
night he recrossed the Delaware, and at dawn, while Washington captures 
the Hessians at Trenton were sleeping; in a drunken stu- ^^ ^<=ssians at 

'■ ^ Trenton 

por from their revels, he captured a thousand of them, (December 26) 
with a large store of arms and ammunition. He soon 
made Trenton his headquarters. When surrounded by 
the British under Cornwallis, he broke camp during the 
night, and, leaving fires burning to deceive the enemy, 
secretly marched around them to Princeton in their rear. 
Here he defeated three British regiments, and marched 
to Morristown, among the mountains of northern New 
Jersey; he knew the British would not dare to attack wash 
him there, and went into winter quarters. The maneu- 
vering in the retreat from New York to Morristown 
under so many difficulties proved the wonderful genius 
of Washington, and aroused deep sympathy in Europe 
for the American revolutionists. 



1777 

ington goes 
into winter quarters 
at Morristown 

(January) 





1777 
THE ORIGINAL FLAG 



1904 
THE FLAG OF TO-DAY 



In congress. July 4, 17/^. 
*WficumtmmoM$^ccfar(rtM»it.f*««,...a,$fafe5of'%>'(nMrtca, 












rwi^. 






^,/ ->. i fclft ^ ^^;'^«^ ■ 4* ^-"y .£ ^^it^^Ju^fr t.&fiLCyJ^ 



•i»4t^Ct^t^n^j^aUn^. 






mtt^'m^^im^AtMH..*n^»,\i ' y A iimJ^iiir^ ^t*'^^2tAt ty tld i^ ii^^'~d^»rt^. ___^^ 
















t.-ed^A»iQi**t^,»*^ ^c^r^fm^ Mat^^t^m* 4 mm*i ^ 4t»^ flfit^^it'^' ^ aiJA lJt ^ t4t £n m^aamf ^>A* ^^ *mit -—. 
























^aL^', 



AJCv^it^. 












CHAPTER XXI 



1777 



THE REVOLUTION (Continued) 

After the Declaration of Independence Congress 
adopted the Union flag with thirteen white stars in a TheHagoVour 
field of blue, in place of the cross of St. George. To U"'°" '^""^ '^^ 
fight under its folds, the French Marquis de La- 
fayette, not yet out of his teens, fitted up a ship 
at his own expense, and, with Baron de Kalb and 
other officers, sailed to America. Many young 
men of Europe were fired with zeal to aid the 
new republic. Count Pulaski and Kosciusko, 4^ 
the Polish patriots, crossed the sea, and a 
famous soldier, the German Baron Steuben, 
came to instruct the Americans in military 
tactics. But notwithstanding the efforts of 
Benjamin Franklin and other emissaries at 
their courts, the powers of Europe refused to 
aid openly the cause of England's colonies. 

The war raged on; General Howe was determined to 
enter Philadelphia, and because Washington stood guard 
in northern New Jersey, he took boats, sailed from Staten 
Island into Chesapeake Bay, and landed at Elkton, in 
Maryland. At Chadd's Ford on the Brandywine, Brandywir 




LAFAYETTE 
1757-1834 



after 



(September ii) 



Washington met Howe, and was defeated 
terrible battle. 

Philadelphia was seized by Howe. Washington at- Howe occupies 

tacked the British at Germantown near Philadelphia, P'^^^deiphia 

'■ (September 26) 

but was again defeated. He then went into winter Germantown 

quarters at Valley Forge, twenty miles from Philadel- (October 4j 

I *7 *7 *7— f 7 *7 5? 

phia, to watch the British, who had headquarters there, vaiiey Forge 



The winter weather was very severe. 



The Continental 
[«39] 



140 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



1777 
The British plan to 
conquer New York 



Rurgoyne at 
Ticonderoga (July 5) 




John Stark at 
I'cnnington 
(August 16) 



Benedict Arnold at 
Fort Stanwix 
(August 22I 



troops were often without food, and from lack of warm 
clothing, many were obliged to sit all night by the camp- 
fires to keep from freezing to death. 

Meanwhile in the North, the British had been making 
a tremendous effort to get control of New York State, 
and thus cut the United Colonies in two. Albany, on 
the Hudson, was agreed upon as the meeting place of 
three British armies. General John Burgoyne was to 
reach there by way of Lake Champlain, Colonel St. 
Leger by the St. Lawrence and Lake Ontario, 
while General Howe was to come up the Hud- 
son from New York. 

In July Burgoyne drove General Philip Schuyler 
from Ticonderoga, and soon had control of Lake 
Champlain and Lake George. Then, following 
Schuyler, he marched to Fort Edward on the east 
side of the Hudson. General Schuyler, with about 
four thousand men, intrenched his camp on the 
west side, near the mouth of the Mohawk. 
While the armies lay watching each other, 
Burgoyne sent eight hundred men to Bennington, 
, where some Continental supplies were stored. 
They were met by Colonel John Stark and four hundred 
militia. "There they are, boys," cried Stark, "we 
must beat them to-day, or this night Mollie Stark 's a 
widow ! " The British were routed completely. 

Meanwhile St. Leger attacked Fort Stanwix (now 
the city of Rome); but the garrison held out until Colo- 
nel Benedict Arnold arrived, and drove him to Oswego. 
These failures to carry out the campaign as planned, 
distressed Burgoyne greatly. Tory allies were cut off; 
Indian allies began to desert; provisions were scant; and 
all the time the American army was growing stronger. 
There was no way of escaping defeat if Howe failed to 



THE REVOLUTION 



141 



come up the Hudson. Howe had intended to capture 
Philadelphia in a short time, and then make the expedi- 
tion to Albany, but, as we have seen, Washington kept 
him busy around Philadelphia. 

After Schuyler's defeat at Ticonderoga, Congress gave Horatio Gates is 

TT-'z—i ifi- /^ , 1 given command of 

Horatio Gates command of his army. Gates moved up schuyier's army 
the west bank of the 
Hudson, and a camp 
was fortified at Bemis 
Heights under the direc- 
tion of Kosciusko, the 
Polish engineer. Bur- 
goyne crossed the Hud- 
son and moved down to 
Bemis Heights. Here 
a severe but indecisive 
battle was fought. ' ' Al 
bany at all hazards," 
said the British 
general, who still 
hoped to meet 
Howe there. In 
another battle, at 
Stillwater, he was bad 
ly defeated. He tried 
to retreat to Canada; but 

the army of General Gates hemmed him in on all sides, 
and, on the 17th of October, 1777, at Saratoga, he sur- 
rendered his army of six thousand men, with an im- 
mense quantity of ammunition and stores. Among the 
prisoners were six members of the British Parliament.* 

The Tories of England heard the news of Burgoyne's Bm-goyne's 




surrender 



1 Burgoyne sailed to England on his parole j his troops were quartered near Boston. '•'-'*^^° ^^ '' 



142 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



1778 
France makes a 
treaty of alliance, 
and promises a fleet 
(February) 



Saratoga, one of the 
fifteen decisive 
battles of the world 



Th« " Conway 
Cabal " 



The British evacuate 
Philadelphia 
Ounr 17) 



defeat with amazement and chagrin; but the Whigs were 
proud of their American cousins. France was delighted, 
and Louis XVI, fearing that the colonies might make 
terms with England, listened, at last, to the pleading of 
Benjamin Franklin, and promised a fleet. 

Meantime, George III had anticipated his rival's prof- 
fer of aid in the war, and offered the colonies all they 
demanded in the Declaration of Rights if they would lay 
down arms. The offer came too late. The suffering had 
been too severe to retreat. Bribes were offered some 
American officers. "I am not worth purchasing," said 
one, "but such as I am, the king of England is not rich 
enough to buy me." 

The battle of Saratoga is called one of the fifteen 
decisive battles of the world. It induced France, Spain, 
and Holland to recognize the independent United States 
of America; it preserved the union of the colonies, se- 
cured aid from abroad, and renewed the courage of the 
patriots. General Gates took to himself, unjustly, all 
the honor of the victory, and, while Washington suf- 
fered with his troops at Valley Forge, some jealous offi- 
cers formed a plot to put Gates in supreme command. 
This plot, called the "Conway Cabal," failed to injure 
the great commander, who continued steadfast in his 
duty while watching the enemy at Philadelphia. He 
drilled his army with the aid of Baron von Steuben, 
and always hoping that Kin<^ Louis would pledge to send 
over land forces in addition to the fleet, he planned a 
new campaign. 

The British general, Clinton, who had succeeded 
Howe, fearing a blockade of New York by the ap- 
proaching French fleet, evacuated Philadelphia in June, 
and hastened north; Washington pursued, and the van 
of his army engaged the rear of the British at Mon- 



THE REVOLUTION I43 

mouth, N. J. General Charles Lee, now known to The battle of 

hi i 'a • J r ii_ A • Monmouth (June 28 

ave been a traitor, was in command or the American 

division. In the midst of the conflict Lee ordered a 
retreat. Washington rode up to the field in time to pre- 
vent disaster. The battle raged furiously till evening, 
and during the night the British set sail at Sandy Hook 
for New York. Washington marched to Morristown, 
and extended his lines from that place to West Point on 
the Hudson River. The following year the fort at Stony 
Point on the Hudson, was captured by General Clinton; 
but, a few weeks later, the hill was stormed by "mad "Mad Anthony" 
Anthony" Wayne, and over five hundred British were S"(juiy'iT 
made prisoners. 

Many Tories joined their fortunes with the British; 
this had been expected; but when Benedict Arnold 
turned traitor, there was horror and indignation in the 
breast of every patriot. One of the boldest officers at 
the beginning of the war, Arnold had been given 
the highest honors by Washington. He married 
a beautiful Tory lady, and his sympathies be 
gan to change. He was extravagant and over- 
bearing. When publicly reprimanded for his 
conduct, he fostered revenge. He planned 
to betray the fortress of West Point, and 
thus give the enemy control of the Hudson. 
The treason was discovered. Major Andre, 
his British agent, was hanged as a spy. Ar- 
nold himself escaped to the British lines. He ^^""^^''J.bo'J''^'"'' 
received thirty thousand dollars for his crime, and 
as a British colonel, turned his arms against his own „ 
countrymen; even the British despised Arnold, the traitor. Benedict Amoid 

The cruel war went on; sometimes one side and 
sometimes the other was victorious; yet the British were 
gradually getting the worst of the conflict. At the 




becomes a traitor 



144 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



1778 
Massacres in 
Wyoming Valley 
and Cherry Valley 



George Rogers 
Clark Wrests the 
Northwest from 
the British 



Governor Patrick 
Henry furnishes 
troops for the 
Clark expedition 



1778-1779 



close 01 three years they had almost abandoned the 
North, and held only New York City and Newport, with 
Staten Island and a part of Long Island. Washington's 
lines, on the west, lay facing these points. 

Meanwhile, led on by Joseph Brant, a Mohawk chief, 
Canadians, Tories, and Iroquois waged bitter war in 
Wyoming Valley, Pa. , and in Cherry Valley, N. Y. Men, 
women, and children were tomahawked, and houses plun- 
dered and burned. West of the Alleghany Mountains 
the British garrisons were urging the Indians to fight; at 
Detroit, a price was put on American scalps, and war 
parties ravaged the settlements in Kentucky and Ten- 
nessee. 

Now, while paddling down the Ohio, George Rogers 
Clark, a young surveyor of Virginia, planned the con- 
quest of the valley north of the river, which had been 
annexed to Quebec. He took his way through the for- 
ests to appeal to Virginia for troops. When he reached 
Williamsburg, he heard of Burgoyne's surrender, and 
was more eager than ever to conquer the West. Gov- 
ernor Patrick Henry furnished troops, to be raised on 
the Western frontiers so as not to weaken the coast in 
its struggles with the British; and Thomas Jefferson 
wrote to Clark his appreciation of the services he was 
about to undertake for the colonies. 

Colonel Clark, with high hopes, proceeded down the 
Ohio from Pittsburg. He took Kaskaskia,' Vincennes, 
and the other British posts, except Detroit. He won 
over the Creoles and armed them. He summoned the 
Indian Confederacies to a great council, and with such 
infinite courage and skill explained the causes of the 
bitter war between England and the colonies, that 



'See map, facing page iJ 



THE REVOLUTION 



145 



1779 



when he offered them the white belt of peace, or the 
red belt of war with the "Americans of Thirteen Fires," 
the warriors quickly chose the white belt; and they kept 
their pledges for a time. Clark established permanent 
garrisons, which held the beautiful valley under the 
stars and stripes until it was ceded by Great Britain in 
the final treaty of peace. 

That same year General Sullivan marched with an Suu'ivan's 
army against the Iroquois, or Six Nations, in central '^"^^ 
New York; he burned their villages, and killed 
many of the warriors that the Iroquois were 
henceforth harmless. 

Meanwhile, the Americans were making 
themselves famous on the sea. Congress 
ordered thirteen cruisers built, bought and 
fitted out several merchant vessels, and au- 
thorized States and private citizens to man 
ships to attack the British navy. Benjamin 
Franklin and Silas Deane, then envoys to 
France, sent out cruisers which took many prizes. 

John Paul Jones became a naval hero, and, sailing into 
the Irish Channel, set fire to shipping, and destroyed 
many vessels. He was given command of a squadron 
of five ships, and, sailing from France, he sped beyond 
the coasts of Ireland and Scotland. IntheBonhoinme Pauijones, imhe 
Richard he captured the British frigate Serapis, and by '',Z^Z17\.^tZpIs 
his masterly warfare kept a part of the British navy (September 23) 
home to defend the coast of Great Britain. It is 
thought that several hundred British vessels, worth mil- 
lions of dollars, were captured by the American fleets. 

Great Britain was soon at war with most of the powers England at war 

x-> T-'i 1 • t ^ 1 • J 1 1 • /• with European 

m Europe. The practice of boardmg the ships of neu- nations 
tral nations caused great indignation among them. Rus- 
sia, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, France, and Spain set 
10 




JOHN PAUL JONES 
1747-1792 



146 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



1778 
Savannah is 
captured 

(December 19) 



1780 
Charleston (May 12) 



Camden (August 16) 



American victory at 
King's Mountain 
(October 7) 



Sumter and Marion 



the sails of their fleets in pursuit of British cruisers. 
Spain captured the forts in West Florida and the post at 
St. Joseph on Lake Michigan. Ireland threatened sep- 
aration from the mother country. So that while with 
one hand Great Britain was fighting the colonies, with 
the other she was guarding her interests at home. The 
English people clamored for peace with America; but 
the cruel war went on by land and by sea. 

Disappointed at the results in the Northern and Mid- 
land colonies, the British shifted the war to the South 
where they counted much on the help of the Tories and 
negroes. Georgia soon lay at the feet of Cornwallis. 
Clinton, leaving only enough troops in New York to 
oppose Washington, sailed with the bulk of his army to 
Charleston. Charleston surrendered, and South Caro- 
lina was raided by the British cavalry officer Tarleton 
until the State was thought to be conquered. Clinton 
then sailed back to New York, leaving Cornwallis in con- 
trol of the southern division of the British army. 

General Gates in command of the American troops 
in the South, was routed by Cornwallis in the battle 
of Camden, S. C. Scores of Tories then joined the 
army of Cornwallis; yet to one Tory there were scores 
of Whigs. When the British Colonel Ferguson started 
on a raid through South Carolina, the news reached 
beyond the Blue Ridge. The backwoodsmen of Ken- 
tucky and Tennessee, in coonskin caps and buckskins, 
routed the redcoats and Tories at King's Mountain. 
Then from swamps and pine forests the patriots of the 
Carolinas rallied again under Thomas Sumter and Fran- 
cis Marion. They fixed scythes and knives in poles for 
bayonets, melted pewter dishes into bullets, manufac- 
tured powder from charcoal and niter, and kept smiting 
the British and Tories to right and to left. 



THE REVOLUTION 



147 




(January 17) 



After the defeat of Gates at Camden, Congress sent 
General Nathaniel Greene, of Rhode Island, to com- 
mand the American troops in the South. 
Greene sent a detachment under Dan- 
iel Morgan into South Carolina for re- 
cruits. Tarleton was attacked by „ 
Morgan at Cowpens, and badly de- cowpens 
feated. Then Cornwallis pursued the 
united armies of Morgan and Greene. 
Greene retreated toward Virginia, 
^ but while he was marching through 
^ \^. / ^^ North Carohna, Cornwallis met and 
NATHANIEL GREENE defeated him at Guilford Courthouse; ouiitord courthouse 

1742-r786 . ,Af u V 

but the loss of the British was so great '^^"'"^ ''' 
that Cornwallis retreated. In spite of defeats, Greene, 
by his caution and skill, soon held the Carolinas and 
Georgia except Charleston, Wilmington, and Savannah. 

Meanwhile the traitor Arnold r ^ ._. _, 

marched into Virginia. Lafay- fc^*V<S^C-^, _\ hmi^oWk /' 
ette, with an army of New Eng- 
land troops, was sent to meet 
him. After the battle of Guil- 
ford Courthouse, Cornwallis took 
command of Arnold's forces. 
Washington still camped on the 
Hudson, watching the move- 
ments of Clinton. 

Then the finishing strokes of 
the long ^eight-years' war were 
made. Cornwallis withdrew to 
the coast of Virginia, and built 

intrenchments at Yorktown, on a peninsula between the The Marquis de 
James and York Rivers. Lafayette followed him, and vL^^i^/r '° 
fortified an American camp eight miles away. 




148 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



Washington and 
Rochambeau in 
Virginia 




1781 
Surrender of 
Cornwallis 

(October 19) 



A French fleet under De Grasse sailed up Chesapeake 
Bay, and cast anchor at the mouth of York River. Wash- 
ington, with Rochambeau and his French troops, secretly 
left the Hudson. He crossed the Delaware at Trenton. 
When he reached Philadelphia, the united armies were 
reviewed by Congress; and as six thousand Frenchmen 
passed by, ' ' the thirteen members of Congress took ofi 
their thirteen hats" at each salute of the silken flags 
of King Louis. The French were eager to humble 
the proud British, with whom they had been at war 
for centuries., 

Washington and Rochambeau, by forced 
marches, soon joined Lafayette. The 
French were in brilliant uniforms, and the 
Americans were in stained and tattered 
homespun, but the same courage animated 
all as they lay in a vast half circle about 
the beleaguered city of Yorktown. 

With the French fleet in the harbor and 
the allied armies hemming them in by land, there 
was no escape for the British. After three weeks 
of fighting and siege, Cornwallis surrendered, and on 
the nineteenth of October, 1781, over seven thousand 
British and Hessians laid down their arms to be- 
come prisoners of war. They marched out of York- 
town to the tune of "The World Upside Down." It 
was quite true that the Old World monarchy was upset; 
but a New World republic had arisen from its ruins. * 

When the Congress at Philadelphia heard of the vic- 
tory at Yorktown, it proceeded to the little Lutheran 
church, and offered up prayers of thanksgiving. In 
France a Te Deum was sung in the great cathedral, 



1 Read Fiske's "American Revolution.' 



THE REVOLUTION 



149 



and the king ordered the inhabitants of Paris to put 
candles in their windows at night. The beams from 
those candles must have made Franklin rejoice in that 
far-away city ! In England, Lord North cried out in 
agony: "It is all over!" and resigned his ministry. 
The House of Commons would not vote any more 
money to carry on the war against their kinsmen, and 
King George was forced to make propositions for peace. 




Tl-ie UNITED STATES 
BY TREATY OF IfSa. 



(I) CLAIMED BY va.MASS.. C0N1M.,AND N.Y. 



John Adams, John Jay, and Benjamin Franklin met 
British Commissioners at Paris, and, in the name of the 
United States of America, concluded a treaty of peace. 

The chief terms of the treaty of Paris were: First, 
the recognition of the independence of the United States; 
second, the cession of the Floridas to Spain, and of the 
remaining British territory east of the Mississippi to the 
United States; third, the free navigation of the Missis- 
sippi and the lakes; and the retention by Great Britain 
of Canada and Nova Scotia. 



1783 

The Treaty of Paris 
(September 3) 



I50 



AMERICAN INDEPENDENCE 



The American 
army disbands 
The British fleet 
sails home 



Washington resigns 
his commission 
(December 23) 



Prisoners were exchanged between the two armies. 
Thousands of Tories, ashamed and afraid to dwell longer 
in their native land, emigrated to Canada, Nova Scotia, 
or the West Indies. The American army disbanded. 
The British fleet sailed from New York. Washington 
bade farewell to the officers of the army, and embarked 
for Annapolis where Congress was in session; he resigned 
his commission, and then hastened, in time for Christ- 
mas festivities, to Mount Vernon, which he had only seen 
once in eight long years. 

In the treaty of Paris each colony was mentioned 
separately, as if no union existed. Even to the Ameri- 
cans the thirteen impoverished States, loosely bound 
together without a king, seemed like a raft embarking 
upon the sea without a rudder. None dared guess what 
storms the new year might bring. 




Causes of the Revolution 



Commercial restrictions 

Manufacturing restrictions 

Taxes without representation 

The Mutiny Act 

The enforcement of Writs of Assistance 

The Quebec Act 

i Declaration of Rights and Grievances 
Appeals to Canada, the English people, 
and the colonies. 



Battle of Lexington 
Battle of Bunker Hill 
1775 ^ Battle of Ticonderoga 

Second Continental Congress 
Expedition to Canada 



1776 



Petition to the king 

A federal union formed 

Bills of credit issued 

Command of American army as- 
sumed 

George Washington elected com- 
mander of the army 



Declaration of Independence 
War committees appointed 
Committee appointed to write 
Articles of Confederation 



1777^ 



1778- 



1779 



Evacuation of Boston by the 

British 

Defeat at Quebec 

Hessians hired by the king 

Second Continental Congress 

Battle of Long Island 

British occupy New York City 

Washington's retreat 

Battle of Trenton ,t-u£i r-j j j^j 

e J /^ »• I 1 r^ \ 1 he flag or mdependence adopted 

Second Contmental Congress -{ a .• 1 r ^^ r j .■ ^ j 

■.,7 , • , . ivf ■ . ^ / Articles or Confederation passed 

Washington at Mornstown ^ *^ 

The British occupy Philadelphia 

Burgoyne invades New York Slates 

Burgoyne's defeat at Saratoga 

Washington at Valley Forge 

A fleet sent from France 

Clinton evacuates Philadelphia 

Battle of Monmouth 

Washington on the Hudson 

Wyoming and Cherry Valley massacres 

George Rogers Clark conquers the Northwest 

Savannah captured by the British 

Sullivan's expeditions against the Six Nations 

Paul Jones on the Bonhomme Richard 

Capture of Stony Point 

Privateering 



1781 



{Capture of Charleston by the British 
Battle of Camden 
Arnold's treason 
Battle of King's Mountain 
' Battle of Cowpens 
Greene and Cornwallis at Guilford Courthouse 
The Articles of Confederation adopted by the States 
Cornwallis at Yorklown 
Washington arrives from New York 
Surrender of Cornwallis 

1782 \ Preliminary treaty of peace 

{Treaty of Paris 
Evacuation of New York by the British 
The army disbands 

[iSi] 




The weakness of 
the Confederation 



1782 
The preliminary 
treaty of peace 
signed 



A crown is offered 
to Washington 



CHAPTER XXII 

"A MORE PERFECT UNION" 

When the sword of Cornwallis was handed to Wash- 
ington at Yorktown, danger for the colonies was not yet 
over. Even when a preliminary treaty of peace was 
signed in good faith the little republic seemed in almost 
as great danger as ever before. The colonial troops 
had been made desperate by the privations of the eight- 
years' war. There were rumors of a plot to keep a 
standing army, like the countries of Europe, and force a 
tax upon the people to support it. It was said that the 
States would not hold together without an army. Some 
officers spoke to Washington of a crown; but he refused 
the suggestion with indignation. He appealed to the 
troops to continue their devotion to the young nation, 
for which so many thousands had shed their blood, by 
resuming their labors at home. And at his word, as we 
have seen, the Continental army disbanded. 

But the patriots returned to blackened towns and 
[152] 



"A MORE PERFECT UNION" I 53 

desolate farms. The merchant marine was ruined. 
Exports were small, and imports were large. Coin was 
sent out of the country so fast that it was said there 
would soon be none left to pay the debts of the war. 
Patriots, like Robert Morris, had advanced large sums 
from their private fortunes. Congress had borrowed The war debts 
money of France, Holland, and Spain, and these coun- 
tries were clamoring for pay. Some English gazettes 
took delight in saying that the United States were in a 
condition of anarchy and bankruptcy, and did not expect 
to pay debts. 

Benjamin Franklin was still at Paris, laboring inces- 
santly for the cause of his country. John Adams, who john Adams sent as 
was sent as minister to England, was discreet and very •"'"'"'" '" ^"^'^"'^ 
acute in his judgment of men, yet he could not expect to 
win favor at court. It was well enough understood that 
he had not full powers. There were really no full pow- 
ers for Congress to bestow. 

By the Articles of Confederation, Congress might 
negotiate treaties of commerce, yet it could not enforce Defects of the 
them; for each State demanded the control of its own ^■^"^'^^'^^ 

' Confederation 

port. Congress might also declare war, make peace, 

contract debts, and settle controversies between the 

States; but there was no head to enforce its laws, and no 

court of appeal. The Whig party, which had held the 

colonies together, was soon divided on public questions. The whigs divide 

One faction supported the acts of the Continental Con- '"'° ^*''^°°' 

gress, and declared for a tariff on imported goods to pay 

federal debts. The other faction looked with suspicion 

on the acts of Congress, claiming that Congress had no 

right to levy a tax on a State against its will, and that it 

was not bearable to see the ports of a State crowded 

with revenue officers collecting vast sums of money, not 

a penny of which would go into its own treasury. The 



154 



NATIONALITY 



The State 
governments 



I 786-1 787 
Shays' rebellion 



The British hold 
forts on the north 

The Spaniards 
attempt to annex 
the southwest 
territory 



Opinion is divided 
about a new 
government 



States had adopted the Articles of Confederation during 
the war; but they had also framed their own constitutions. 
The delegates to the Continental Congress obeyed their 
State governments, and so many were being called home 
that it began to look as if there would soon be no gen- 
eral government. 

Most of the States had issued their own paper money, 
until a paper dollar was almost worthless. Yet there 
were riots in some of the States when their legislatures 
refused to issue paper money. In the western part of 
Massachusetts the farmers broke up the courts and 
refused to pay taxes. Daniel Shays, their leader, threat- 
ened to overthrow the State government, but, in the 
end, the militia dispersed the mob. 

Things began to look desperate. England predicted 
that if the Confederation were just left alone, it would 
fall to pieces of its own weight, that one State after 
another would be knocking at the door of Parliament 
for protection against her neighbors; and so, contrary to 
the treaty, the British garrisons were kept at Detroit 
and other important posts on the north. Meanwhile, 
the Spaniards, who had recovered the Floridas by 
treaty, were laboring to annex to West Florida the 
American settlements beyond the Blue Ridge. 

In view of all these difficulties some said that nothing 
short of a king and a Parliament would give stability to 
the government. Others said they could not give up 
the idea of a republic; but since the soil and climate of 
America was such that one government could not be 
adapted to the whole country, the merchants and fisher- 
men of New England and the Middle States should form 
one republic, the planters of the South another, and 
the pioneers of the West another. 

Now, while the people debated in the taverns, the 



"A MORE PERFECT UNION" 1 55 

greatest men of the country were writing letters to one 

another about how they might save the Confederation 

from ruin. ., 

1786 

A convention to consider trade and commerce met at The trade 
Annapolis. When it was seen how helpless the Conti- ';°"^^"';°" ^' 

^ J^ Annapolis 

nental Congress was to regulate trade, the convention 

recommended that Congress call the States together for 

the purpose of forming a more perfect union. Accord- g 

ingly, in May, 1787, a quorum of seven States assembled The constitutional 

at Philadelphia with closed doors. Soon all the States phiiadeipTir 

were represented in the convention, except Rhode Island. 

It was a noted body of men. Thomas Jefferson 

and John Adams were still abroad as diplomats; 

but Benjamin Franklin was there, fresh from vie 

tories in the courts of Europe, From poverty 

and obscurity Franklin had risen to fame. 

A French statesman said: " He snatched the 

lightning from the sky and the scepter from 

tyrants." 

Prints of him hung in the windows of Paris; 
snuff boxes and the latest neck wear were a la benjamin franklin 
Franklifi, and Poor Richard's Almanac, which he 1706-1790 

had published in Philadelphia, was translated into sev- 1754 

eral languages. More than thirty years before Franklin F""''''" ^^'^ p'°- 

" _ -^ •' posed at Albany a 

had proposed a union between the colonies, and now, in plan of union 
his eighty-first year, met with governors, lawyers, and 
diplomats to help form a more perfect union. Rumors 
were rife among the people as to what these men 
would do. Some said the meeting would break up in a 
fight, others that a kingdom would be set up, and the 
crown offered to a British prince. 

In the Philadelphia convention, George Washington was George Washington 
elected president. When the debates began, all agreed '^J'^'^'^d president 

'^ o ' o of tlie conventiOD 

that there should be a confederacy of the States, but 




156 



NATIONALITY 



The " Virginia 
plan " adopted 



The three 
compromises 



there were many different opinions about how the league 
should be made. Some favored the independence of 
each State, with all the States bound loosely together for 
offense and defense ; others wished a strong central gov- 
ernment, to which the States should be subordinate.' 
James Madison, since called the Father of the Consti- 
tution, met a committee, and drew up the sketch of a con- 
stitution which came to be known as the " Virginia plan." 
Other plans were drafted, and for four months the debate 
on the framing of a constitution continued. 

Many times the meeting almost broke up without ac- 
complishing anything; once the discussion grew so hot 
that Franklin moved prayer be offered; but at last, the 
" Virginia plan " for the Constitution of the United States 
was adopted, with some compromises. This Constitu- 
tion provides for a general government, which shall have 
power vested in itself to act; to be divided into three 
departments; the legislative, or Congress, to make the 
laws; the executive, or president, to enforce the laws; 
and the judicial, or Federal Courts, to decide disputed 
questions under the laws. 

To satisfy the smaller States, an equal representation 
in the Senate was allowed; to please the slave States, 
three fifths of all slaves were to be counted for a basis 
of representation in the House of Representatives and 
the importation of slaves was permitted till 1808; to 
silence the complaints of the commercial States of the 
North against these last compromises, it was promised 
that exports should never be taxed; and to relieve all the 
States from the feeling that they were forging an iron- 
bound government from which they could never appeal, 
it was agreed that amendments should be added as they 
were needed. 



1 Read Mc Master's " With the Fathers ; " Franklin's " Autobiography." 



"A MORE PERFECT UNION" 1 57 

The form ol union thus adopted by the Constitutional 

Convention of 1787 is unexcelled in the history of the 

world. ' 

As the last names were signed to the Constitution, the 

1787 
aged Franklin pointed toward the painted sun on the The constitution 

back of Washington's chair, and said: " I have often, in '^^'J"^'* ^ 

° ' (September 17) 

the course of the session, looked at the sun behind the 
president without being able to tell whether we were in 
the presence of a rising or a setting sun, but now, at 
length, I have the happiness to know that it is a rising 
and not a setting sun." 

Washington, as president of the Convention, sent the 
Constitution to the Continental Congress, asking that it 
be submitted to the States for adoption. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

FEDERALISTS AND ANTI - FEDERALISTS. 

The Continental Congress, then at New York City, 
agreed to submit the Constitution to the States for adop- 
tion or rejection. When it was published, America 
became a great debating ground. In the newspapers and 
in conventions and legislatures every item of the Consti- 
tution was discussed. Two parties were formed, the Federalists and 
Federalists and the Anti-Federalists. Anti-Federaiists 

The Federalists were largely clergymen, who had 
influence at the town meetings, business men, and mili- 
tary officers. They wished a firm government, and spoke 
boldly for the Constitution. And for the very reason 

'Read the " Constitution of the United States," Appendix. 



Samuel Adams and 
the meeting at the 
Green Dragon 



158 NATIONALITY 

that this class was so enthusiastic for its adoption, the 
farmers and those who dreaded taxes were suspicious of 
the new government. "These lawyers and moneyed 
men, who talk so smoothly, expect to be the rulers," 
they said. " If they tax us, we can not resist; for look 
you, the army is put at the beck and call of any presi- 
dent they may choose to elect." 

Some strong men were among tne Anti- Federalists. 
In New York, they were led by Governor George Clin- 
ton, who thought the commercial interests of New York 
would be injured by tariffs. In Virginia, Patrick Henry 
was their leader. He said that freedom was endangered 
by a strong centralized government which would be little 
better than a king. In Massachusetts, Samuel Adams 
feared the wisdom of one government for so many dif- 
ferent States. 

But some working men called a meeting at the Green 
Dragon Tavern in Boston. They adopted resolutions in 
favor of the Constitution, saying that if it were rejected, 
the trades would decay, and skilful mechanics would be 
compelled to seek employment in strange lands. A 
committee bore the resolutions to Adams, whom all loved 
for his noble conduct during the war. Paul Revere, who 
had aroused the minute men for the battle of Lexington, 
handed the paper to Adams. "How many mechanics 
were at the Green Dragon.''" he asked. "More, sir, 
than the Green Dragon could hold," answered Paul 
Revere. "And where were the rest, Mr. Revere.^" 
"In the streets, sir." "And how many were in the 
streets .-•" "More, sir, than there are stars in the sky," 
Samuel Adams had strong faith in the judgment of the 
industrious mechanics, and resolved from that moment 
to be a Federalist. 
■ The Federalists were the ablest speakers and writers. 



FEDERALISTS AND ANTI-FEDERALISTS I 59 

The men who signed the Constitution had debated four 
months at Philadelphia. They knew just what the 
objections would be and how to answer them. Alexan- 
der Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay wrote a 
series of essays called "The Federalist," which, even " The Federalist •• 
to-day, is considered the best interpretation of the Con- 
stitution that has ever been written. 

But with the great mass of people the character of the 
men who advocated the adoption of the new government 
had the most weight. ' ' Would Washington, the patriot, " 
they said, ' ' after creating an army and guiding it to 
victory in defense of the nation, wish to destroy the 
nation .? " " Would Benjamin Franklin, the wise states- 
man, who knew the faults of all governments, urge 
oppression on his countrymen.''" 

Such arguments had influence with the people, and 
eight States had ratified by May 23, 1788. They were 
Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecti- 
cut, Massachusetts, Maryland, and South Carolina. 
According to Article VII of the Constitution, the ratifi- 
cation of nine States was necessary to establish the gov- 
ernment. Days stretched into weeks. The remaining 
States still hesitated to bind themselves to an agreement 
which restricted their powers. 

At last, on June 21, New Hampshire ratified. The New Hampshire, the 
government of the United States then actually existed, tt" colTtitulT"'' 
Virginia ratified five days later, and when the. fourth of (June 20 
July came, there were two events to celebrate, the Dec- The Declaration of 
laration of Independence and the Adoption of the Con- ^"dependence and 

^ ' the adoption of the 

stitution of the United States. constitution 

At Philadelphia ten ships in the Delaware, represent- " ' TjWT' " 
ing the ten States that had adopted the Constitution, 
were draped in bunting, and at each mast fluttered a flag 
with the name of a State. One float in a long proces- 



l6o NATIONALITY 

sion was the Federal temple, whose dome was supported 
by thirteen pillars, three of which were unfinished, be- 
cause three States had not yet signed the Constitution. 
But while in some cities there were rejoicings, there 
were riots in others; the Anti-Federalists had no faith 
in the new government. 

The Constitution of the United States had now been 
legally adopted, yet the excitement continued. Would 
New York ratify .'* That was the next question. The 
State was the wedge between the New England and the 
Middle and Southern States. If New York remained 
out of the Union with separate commercial and political 
interests, the stability of the new government would be 
endangered. Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and other 
Federalists, worked day and night with the New York 
convention, and on July 26, the Constitution was adopted. 
The old Continental Congress set the days for choos- 
ing presidential electors in the States and casting the 
The 4th of March elcctoral votes. It made the first Wednesday in March 
the time for the assembling of the new Senate and 
House of Representatives. This chanced to be 
the fourth of March, and Congress afterward 
fixed that day for the beginning of the presi- 
dential term of office. Of course we know that 
electors are now all chosen by popular vote, but 
in 1788 the people in some of the States voted 
for them directly, only a portion of the people 
voted for them in others, while the legislatures 
chose them in others. 
GEORGE WASHINGTON ^hc dcctors choseu met on the day appointed. 
1732-1799 They cast their votes for two candidates; the one 

receiving the highest vote would be president and the 
other vice-president. New York City had been made 
the temporary capital, and there, on April 6, 1789, 




FEDERALISTS AND ANTI-FEDERALISTS 



l6l 



1789 

the first Congress of the United States counted the elect- George Washington 
oral vote, and announced that George Washington had 'i^e'S^ir^dtater* 
been chosen president and John Adams vice-president (April 6) 

of the United States. 

Washington was notified of his election. On his jour- 
ney from Mount Vernon to New York he received much 
attention. "Washington's March" was played to the 

air now known as "Hail Columbia," and 

flowers were strewn in his pathway as he 
passed through some of the towns. 

On the thirtieth of April, Washington 
proceeded with a military escort to Federal 
Hall, where both houses of the new Con- 
gress were already assembled. Then with 
Vice-President Adams, Congress, and in- 
vited guests he proceeded to the balcony. 
An immense concourse of people was gath- 
ered below to greet him. 

Washington, tall and dignified, bowed 
again and again. He was clothed in a 
dark brown suit of American manufacture, 
white silk stockings, and shoes with silver 
buckles; his hair was powdered, and tied 
in a silk bag ; a sword hung at his side. 

Chancellor Robert R. Livingston stood on one side, 
John Adams on the other ; Alexander Hamilton, Baron 
Steuben, and other distinguished men were grouped near. 
The Chancellor held up his hand for silence. The vast ^^'-^shington's 

inauguration 

crowd stood in deepest veneration while he adminis- (April 30) 
tered the oath of office upon the Bible, which James 
Otis held on a crimson cushion.* Washington repeated 
the words in a clear voice, and whispered, as if to him- 
self, "So help me God," and kissed the Book. Then 
Chancellor Livingston exclaimed aloud, ' ' Long live 




ELECTION OF 1789 



1 62 



NATIONALITY 



The government of 
the United States 
of America begins 



George Washington, president of the United States," and 
the people took up the words in a great cry. Cocked 
hats were tossed, handkerchiefs fluttered, and above all 
fluttered the new flag of the Union. 

The government of a republic had begun ! 




FEDERAL HALL, NEW YORK 



I 



CHAPTER XXIV 




GEORGE WASHINGTON (FIRST PRESIDENT, 1789-1797), 
FEDERALIST 

ASHINGTON'S inaugural address was 
delivered in the presence of the mem- Washington's 
bars of the United States Senate and '"""^"^"' "''^"^ 
House of Representatives. There 
were few present who had signed the 
Constitution. Party spirit had been 
bitter in the elections, and the mem- 
bers of our first Congress were largely 
a compromise between the Federal and Anti-Fed- 
eral parties ; but they were earnest, patriotic men. 
When Washington retired from the Senate Chamber, 
it became a grave question what title Congress should 
use in a reply to the president. Should he be called 
"High Mightiness," or "Serene Highness" ? In all the 
world there had never been an office just like that held 
by George Washington. Some said it would not add to 
his glory to class him with the petty princes of Europe, 
and that the simple name of president was the proudest 
name of all. And so the first words of the reply were, 
"George Washington, President of the United States, 
Sir: — " Congress then arranged to complete the exec- The executive 
utive department by giving the president three secre- '**'p^""^"' 
taries. It provided for a Supreme Court, with a Chief The judicial 
Justice and five associate Justices, and divided the United '^=p^'^'"^"' 
States into three circuit and thirteen district courts. 
Washington named John Jay the first chief justice. 
Washington chose Thomas Jefferson, of Virginia, sec- 

[163] 



164 



NATIONALITY 



Thomas Jefferson, 
secretary of state ; 
Alexander Hamilton, 
secretarj' of the 
treasury ; General 
Knox, secretary 
of war 



The importance of 
tlie treasury 
department 
A tonnage tax 



A protective tariff 



1789 

The first tariff least 
opposed of any in 
our history 



retary of state, Alexander Hamilton, of New York, sec- 
retary of the treasury, and General Henry Knox, of 
Massachusetts, secretary of war. Now, in our times, a 
position in the president's cabinet means honor at home 
and abroad ; but in this first year of the republic it 
seemed to promise only dishonor. The foreign depart- 
ment faced the haughty monarchs of Europe who deemed 
the Republic an upstart, the war department faced 
anarchy, and the treasury department faced national 
bankruptcy. 

Only a sound financial policy could save the reputa- 
tion of the government. And the first thing to do was 
to create a revenue. A tonnage tax was accordingly put 
on foreign ships. For example, at fifty cents a ton a 
vessel of four hundred tons was obliged to pay to the 
revenue officers two hundred dollars before it could 
unload its cargo at any of our ports. 

According to the Constitution no duties could be laid 
upon exported goods ; but a revenue might be created 
by a tax on imports. So a tax was placed on sev- 
eral foreign articles. New England and Pennsylvania 
secured, after a long debate, a light protective tariff for 
some goods they were beginning to manufacture, and the 
Southern States were favored by a tariff on cotton and 
coal. Cotton was just beginning to be much cultivated, 
and Virginia seemed to have enough coal to supply the 
whole country. This first tariff bill, which the president 
signed on the fourth of July, was more acceptable to all 
sections of the country than any that has since been 
passed by Congress, because the strong sectional features 
of American industries had not yet developed. 

Custom houses were established at ports of entry 
along the coast, and the treasury of the United States 
received the revenues to disburse for expenses of the gov- 
ernment and payments on the war debt. 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 165 

1791 

Twelve amendments were proposed by Congress, and constitutional 
submitted to the States. Ten of them were ratified by Xp"^^'"'' 
three fourths of the States, and became a part of the 
Constitution as we have them to-day.^ 

It was by discussing these amendments that Ameri- 
cans began to see how perfect the new government was 
— how it could never be an instrument of oppression 
because the people themselves might adapt it to their 
needs as time and circumstances might demand. 

Meanwhile Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the 
treasury, had prepared his financial report. He showed National and state 
that the entire debt, both State and national, incurred r^^^ebts assumed 

' ' *>-■>-» by the general 

for the war, amounted to nearly eighty millions of dol- government 
lars. This debt had been created for a common use. 
He declared that the policy of the government should 
be to assume the whole debt. Now, some States were 
large debtors and some were small. The Anti-Federal- 
ists said it would be an act of oppression to tax all States 
in the same proportion. 

It took a long time to agree about this matter. The 
people said congressmen were earning their six dollars 
a day very easily, and that they should be hired by the 
job instead of by the day. But, at last. Congress passed j- ^ 

the bills to assume both State and national debts incurred Bonding the debt 
for the war. Interest-bearing bonds were issued to 
creditors. That same year Rhode Island ratified the 
Constitution, and, as John Adams expressed it, the thir- 
teen States, like thirteen clocks, began striking together. 

The United States were confined to the east slope of The thirteen 
the Appalachian Mountains. On the north was Canada, ^""*'' ^'^*" 
with its scattered French population, under the control 
of a British governor. On the south was Spanish 
Florida. The broad roadway, which once led from 



* See Amendments to the Constitution, Appendix. 



1 66 



NATIONALITY 



quaint old St. Augustine to Pensacola, was overgrown 
with brushwood, and not more than two hundred fam- 
ihes dwelt outside these two towns. Beyond the west- 
ern mountains was a vast region with memories of 
Braddock's campaign and the massacres of settlers. 
On the eastern borders stretched the sea, the highway to 
the markets of jthe world. 




GATES AT ST. AUGUSTINE 

The thirteen commonwealths that lay facing the sea 
may be grouped into three great divisions. 
New England In New England there were Maine, a stretch of barren 

coast, which still belonged to Massachusetts ; New 
Hampshire ; Vermont, which, though claimed by New 
York, hoped soon to add another star to the liag by 
admission to the Union; Massachusetts; Rhode Island, 
and Connecticut, — all still a wilderness except on the 
coast and along the rivers. At Lowell, where thouands 
of spindles would soon be humming, a few scattered 
families made their living by catching fish. 



WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 



167 



The New Englanders were still thrifty mechanics, 
small farmers, fishermen, shipbuilders, and traders. 
They still met at the taverns, where John Adams had 
first learned, by listening to the talk of the people, that 
independence was sure to come. And 
now that citizens had a hand in the af- 
fairs of thirteen States instead of just 
one, there were more meetings than 
ever. 

The farmers and trades people wore 
buckskin and homespun, cocked hats, 
and stout shoes, with brass buckles. 
The farmer put his children to work on 
the farm; the mechanic apprenticed his 
sons to others like himself, and his 
daughters often went out to service. 

In the Middle States, the people of 
New York centered about the Hudson, 
and many still spoke the language of 
the Dutch patroons. The Germans and other foreigners The Middle states 
in New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were pros- 
perous and contented. 

The Southern States, Maryland, Virginia, North Caro 
lina. South Carolina, and Georgia were still agricultural. 
Trades and merchandise seemed degrading to the cava- 
liers; even the great Jefferson said: "While we have 
land to labor, let us never wish to see our citizens occu- 
pied at a workbench or twirling a distaff. " Serene and 
picturesque lay these Southern States in the midst of 
winding rivers and sweeping stretches of rich planta- 
tions. The masters lived like princes, the poor whites 
gambled, quarreled, and starved, and the negroes toiled 
in the fields. 

Of the cities in the United States, Philadelphia Thedties 




The Southern States 



i68 



NATIONALITY 



New York 



Philadelphia had Outstripped all. William Penn had made it 

famous in every part of Europe before its streets had 
been well laid out, and then Benjamin Franklin made 
it still more famous by his discoveries in electricity and 
his wit as "Poor Richard." 

Boston Boston, upon which the hand of oppression had fallen 

most heavily, was the second city in size. Its crooked, 
narrow streets, and green stretch of commons, where 
Liberty had first sought a honie, were already becoming 
historic. 

New York City was third in size and importance. It 
was in miniature what it is to-day. At least eighteen 
different languages were spoken on its streets, and its 
docks were crowded with ships that sailed on every sea. 
The city was full of Tories who had been protected by 
the British army during the whole of the war, and now 
that the capital of the nation was there, they paid hom- 
• age to the president, and seemed determined to make 
him as much of a king as they could. 

Baltimore, Richmond, Charleston, and Savannah were 
small, yet beautiful cities, where few but rich planters 
lived. 

Many of the planters had been educated in England, 
and were gentlemen of leisure. There were the govern- 
or's receptions to occupy their attention; and the prome- 
nades, where they saw cavaliers on spirited horses, and 

Politics in the South ladies in gilded coaches, and the State capitols, where 
they loitered to listen to the orations of eloquent patriots. 
A planter's highest ambition had always been the House 
of Burgesses, and now the Congress of the United States 
offered a fine opportunity to show the skill in debate he 
had acquired in wrangles with the royal governors.^ 



Baltimore 

Richmond, 
Charleston, 
Savannab 



*Read Thackeray's "The Virginian^** 



WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 



169 



Both in the North and in the South there were many The discomforts of 
discomforts. The great colonial houses with broad '^^ '\f°°'^ °^'^ 

'-' times 

oaken stairways and wainscoted chambers were devoid 
of the commonest conveniences of to-day. 

There were no houses of correction or reformatories 
or penitentiaries with workshops and schools. A prisoner 
for debt was thrown into the same pen with the very 
worst criminals. One prison was an old copper mine, Public penalties 
where the victims were kept with their feet 
fastened to the ground and their necks 
chained to beams overhead. In all the colo- 
nies the stocks, the whipping post, and the 
ducking stools were still seen on the public 
highways, and ears were cropped, and letters 
burned into the flesh of the wayward. Dis- 
eases ran riot, with no hand to stay epi- 
demics. The family physician rode his 
rounds with saddlebags of strong medicine, 
which he dosed out for all complaints alike. punishment for a scold 
A tooth was extracted or a broken leg sawed off with The family 
no remedy to benumb the pain. It was, indeed, the p*^^®"^'^" 
"survival of the fittest" in those "good 
when Washington became president of 
States. 

But whatever else was lacking, there was no lack of The statesmen 
great men. The Americans had written the Declaration 
of Independence, the Constitution of the United States, 
"The Federalist," and scores of pamphlets and editorials 
which the statesmen of Europe declared had never been 
surpassed. 

The vigorous financial policy of the new government 
created a favorable effect both at home and abroad. 
The price of public securities advanced. Some of the 
foreign loans went above par. Trade revived. Ship- 




old days " 
the United 



of America 



The national 
credit is 
strengthened 



170 



NATIONALITY 



1790 
The patent office 




ELI WHITNEY 
1765-1825 



The cotton " gin' 
of Eli Whitney 



1790 
The first census 
shows a population 
of four million 



Internal 
improvements 



building increased. New manufactories were started 
Sheep were raised to furnish the mills with wool, and iron 
ore was fished from the bottom of ponds and dug from 
the mountain side to smelt in the furnaces fed 
with charcoal. 

To protect the crude inventions which began 

to appear, Thomas Jefferson, the secretary of 

state, induced Congress to establish a patent 

office. First, a grain cutter was patented, by 

which one man could cut five acres of wheat 

a day; then a thrashing machine, which beat 

out as much wheat as forty men with flails. 

Another patent was for a water mill, to 

spin flax. 

The sixth patent which Jefferson accepted 
was the famous cotton "gin," or engine, of Eli Whit- 
ney. Little did he think how the destinies of his be- 
loved South hung on the teeth of that rude machine! 
The cotton gin, by cleaning cotton a thousand times 
faster than had ever been done before, made the culti- 
vation of cotton so profitable that it changed the views 
of the Southern States on the tariff question, and 
planted more firmly than ever the system of slavery, 
which Jefferson himself said he hated and hoped to live 
to see abolished. 

That same year the first census of the' United States 
and their Territories showed the population to be nearly 
four million. Bountiful harvests added to the general 
prosperity of the country; pike roads began to be laid 
out from one town to another, and bridges built across 
streams. The people were thus drawing closer together. 
Meanwhile, President Washington had the responsi- 
bility of establishing precedents in executive etiquette. 
He desired to avoid the rigid ceremonies of a king, yet 



WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION I7I 

deemed it necessary to maintain the public dignity in the Presidential 
eyes of Europe. The aristocratic citizens of New York p'*"**^"'* 
dehghted to see his cream-colored chariot drawn by six 
horses with footmen and outriders in livery. They Theievees 
lauded Washington's dignity at the Tuesday afternoon 
levees, when, surrounded by his brilliant cabinet, with 
cocked hat under his arm, he bowed to each guest and 
exchanged a few words. They cherished the Friday 
evening entertainments of "Lady" Washington, where 
the beauty and wit of the nation were brought together. 

Yet some criticized these "scrapings and bowings." 
They complained because the president drove in a coach 
mstead of sauntering along the avenues with the com- 
mon people, who were as good as himself ; and because 
he would not sit in the taverns to chat over matters of Washington's 
the cabinet and Congress. When his birthday was cele- ^'"^^"^^^ 
brated with barbecues and a holiday in the shops, they 
said he was jittle better than a king, and nicknamed him 
the "American George." Thomas Jefferson heartily de- 
spised the ceremony he saw, and said it was not the way 
a republican government should be conducted. 

And so in the heart of the new nation two factions The two factions 
were formed : the one, led by Alexander Hamilton, John 
Jay, John Adams, and Rufus King, was composed of 
conservative college-bred men, merchants, and manu- 
facturers who feared radical measures, and pinned their 
faith to a strong central government ; the other, led by 
Thomas Jefferson, James Monroe, Albert Gallatin, and 
John Randolph, was made up of those who detested 
court manners, believed in more "States' rights," op- 
posed the national bank and the payment of State debts 
by the federal government. 

But while under his very eyes dissensions and jeal- 
ousies were raging, President Washington moved on 



172 



NATIONALITY 



1791 

Washington makes a 
journey through 
the South 



with such serene dignity in what he believed was right 
that he won the admiration of Europe and the venera- 
tion of his own countrymen. 

Because the seat of government was in the North, he 
made a three-months' journey in his private carriage 
through the States in the South, and by his cordial man- 
ners united the two sections more closely together. 
Very soon after this journey to the South, some re- 
markable events occurred in the West ; but before 
recounting them it will be necessary to make a review 
of the progress made by the West since the war of the 
Revolution. 




STAGECOACH, TIME OF WASHINGTON 



CHAPTER XXV 



GEORGE WASHINGTON (1789-1797) (Continued), 

FEDERALIST 

1778 
As WE have seen, George Rogers Clark set the Amer- The territory north 

ican flag over the region north of the Ohio River, and by ^eiJri^'° '""'"'' 
the treaty of Paris it was ceded to the United States. 
The country was about twice as large as Great Britain 
and Ireland. Its great lakes held nearly one half the 
fresh water of the whole globe. Its prairies, forests, and 
mines contained exhaustless wealth. But to the British 
people it seemed only a wilderness, dangerously full of 
lurking savages. The Americans themselves knew little 
of the real value of these lands, which were claimed by 
New York (through purchase), Massachusetts, Connecti- 
cut, and Virginia (through charters). 

On condition that all the colonies bind themselves in 
a confederation, these four States had given the Conti- 1 780-1 786 
nental Congress a clear title to most of the western surrender claims to 
lands, to be sold to help pay the debts of the war. western lands 

Virginia reserved one tract of land, between the Scioto 
and Miami Rivers, as a bounty for her veterans of the 
Revolutionary war, and another, farther west, for 
Clark and others who had helped to wrest it from the 
British. Connecticut held back a strip of land along 
the shore of Lake Erie, called the Western Reserve. 

The Continental Congress had agreed to divide the 
new territory into sections, townships, and ranges for 
public sale. And while the Constitutional Convention TheOrdinance 
at Philadelphia was debating on the plan for the forma- ^^ '^^^ 
tion of a new government, the remnant of the Conti- 

[173] 



174 



NATIONALITY 



The Northwest 
Territory 



Slavery forbidden 
forever north of 
the Ohio 



The forts 
in the West 



The government 
sells land to the 
Ohio Land 
Company 



nental Congress lingered in New York to finish its work 
before adjourning for the last time. 

This old Congress had done grand things. It had 
declared the independence of the colonies, and supplied 
the sinews of war as best it could. But a great work still 
remained to be done. 

Almost unnoticed in the excitement about the new 
Constitution the few delegates organized the ceded 
lands into ' ' The Territory of the United States north- 
west of the River Ohio,"^ and wrote out an "Ordi- 
nance " by which it was to be governed until the 
population was sufficient to form into Territories and 
States. 

This Ordinance was a marvelous instrument from 
beginning to end ; but upon its sixth article hung great 
issues for the future. By this article slavery was 
forbidden forever. The years would bring changes in 
the attitude of the original thirteen States toward the 
slavery question. But as for Northwest Territory, its 
policy was fixed by law in the Ordinance of 1787. 
There could be no slavery north of the Ohio River. 

Several trading posts and log forts were scattered 
through the Ohio valley at that time. There were 
Fort Chartres and Kaskaskia on the Mississippi, Fort 
Vincennes on the Wabash, Fort Harmar on the Mus- 
kingum, and other smaller forts.*^ 

The government sold about five million acres of land 
to the Ohio and Scioto Land Companies, and settlement 
began. Forty-seven colonists floated down the Ohio 
in the flat boat Mayflozver from Pittsburg. These 
Pilgrims landed opposite the palisaded walls of Fort 



» Read Hinsdale's "The Old Northwest." 
• See map, facing page 189. 



WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 1 75 

1788 

Harmar, and built a few huts. Soon more emigrants Marietta founded 

came down the river under charge of Mannassah Cutler °" »he Muskingun, 

who had helped purchase the land. When these reached 

the little settlement, a meeting was held. The place was 

named Marietta, and thus the oldest town in Ohio was 

founded. Washington, who had led armies into the 

valley to prepare the way for this western immigration, 

watched the lonely settlement with the keenest interest. 

"No colony in America," said he, "was ever settled 

under such favorable auspices as that which has just 

commenced on the Muskingum. I know many of the 

settlers personally." Other towns were soon built, 

Losantiville, afterward called Cincinnati, was founded. Cincinnati 

Within the year ten thousand emigrants crossed the 

mountains to find new homes. Many had sought the 

wilderness to avoid debt and punishment. But many 

more were sturdy men and boys whose ever-increasing 

numbers became the talk of the taverns on the coast. 

1790 

War soon broke out with the Indians who wished War with the 
to recover the lands they had sold. The settlers fled ^^==>'"'/"'^'^"= 
to the forts. Washington sent General St. Clair, 
the governor of the Northwest Territory, with two 
thousand men to Fort Washington at Cincin- 
nati to attack the Indians. "Beware a sur- 
prise," was the solemn warning, as he bade his 
old military comrade good-by. 

At the head waters of the Wabash St. Clair's 
army was surprised by Little Turtle and his 
Miami warriors. After a fierce struggle, half T^k'^ ^■^' ^^ 
of the soldiers were killed, and the fleeing rem- arthur st. clair 

nant found shelter at Fort Washington. The presi- 1734-18I8 

dent was shocked and grieved at the result of this expe- 
dition. "I charged him, over and over again, 'Beware st. ciair-s defeat 
a surprise' ! " he exclaimed. 




176 



NATIONALITY 



1793 

" Mad Anthony ' 
Wayne defeats 
the Indians 



I79I 
Vermont admitted 
to the Union 



1790 
"The territory 
southwest of 
the Ohio" 

1769 
Daniel Boone 
explores Kentucky 




DANIEL 
1755- 

1774-1775 
Harrodsburg and 
Boonesborough 
founded 



General Wayne was appointed to succeed St, Clair in 
command of the western garrison — " Mad Anthony," he 
was called from his impetuous fighting during the Revo- 
lution. Wayne built forts; and defeated the Indians in a 
great battle at the falls of the Maumee River. The 
chiefs then purchased peace by ceding the land as far 
west as the Wabash ; and emigrants pressed into the 
Northwest Territory in greater numbers than ever. 

Meanwhile the coast of Maine and the western part 
of New York were being settled ; and Vermont, the 
"Republic of the Green Mountains," was added to the 
Union as the fourteenth State. 

The year that the ordinance for the Northwest Terri- 
tory was framed. South Carolina ceded her lands west of 
the Blue Ridge Mountains to the Congress, and two 
years later North Carolina ceded what is now Tennessee. 
Congress united the two cessions, and formed the "Ter- 
ritory southwest of the Ohio River." Slavery was per- 
mitted because it had been stipulated by the 
Carolinas at the time of the cessions. 

Now, about the beginning of the Revolution 
the backwoodsmen on the frontiers of Virginia 
and Pennsylvania had crossed the mountains 
to find homes south of the Ohio. Daniel 
Boone, a young trapper, first threaded his 
way to Kentucky, the " dark and bloody" 
hunting-ground of the Indian Confedera- 
cies. Harrodsburg and Boonesborough were 
founded. And when rumors came through the 
forests of the first battle of Massachusetts against 
the British red coats, a party of hunters on the Elkhorn 
gave the name of Lexington to the spot where they 
camped. 

As the trappers followed the game, so the settlers fol- 



BOONE 

1820 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 177 

lowed the trappers. The backwoodsmen on the east 
slope of the mountains passed through Cumberland Gap, 
forded rivers, chose their resting place, and erected a pal- 
isade fort, to protect their rude homes. Boys, before 
their teens, were given their own loopholes to use in case 
of an attack from the Indians. The settlements had Life beyond the 
their captains, and levied their riflemen for drill. There 
were some ruffians, but many heroes among these pio- 
neers. The women spun wild flax or the wool of their 
flocks into yarn, and wove it into cloth. The trappers 
beat the forest for game, or plundered the hollow trees 
of honey, and bartered their spoils for the necessities 
of life. 

These backwoodsmen in leather clothes who fought so 
desperately with " red skins" had a reputation for law- 
lessness among the plantations of Virginia. A "Ken- A"Kentuc" 
tuc" is said to have been the "cowboy" of those days, 
and was dreaded almost as much as an Indian.^ After a 
time the rude cabins clustered into villages with a tavern, 
a schoolhouse, and a little church. Then, under a great The territorial 
elm at Boonesborough, delegates from the towns met in ''°°''^° '°° 
convention. Laws were enacted, and Kentucky became 
a commonwealth, subject to Virginia. That same year 
twelve hundred Cherokees met on the Wautauga in 
council with the white men. Herds of beeves were fur- 
nished for a feast. The chiefs sold the lands along the 
Kentucky and Cumberland Rivers for fifty thousand dol- 
lars, in money and merchandise. But other tribes ,-_g_, „ 
claimed the same lands. The warriors from the north ciark secured the 
crossed the Ohio for booty until the famous expedition ^j;* 
of Clark brought peace to the troubled frontier. 

Then thousands of settlers came to Kentucky m flat 



lian warriors 



*Read Roosevelt's "Winning of the West." 
12 



178 



NATIONALITY 



1792 

Kentucky becomes 
a State 



1796 
Tennessee adds the 
sixteenth star to 
the flag 



Nashville and 
Rnoxville 



1789 

North Carolina's 
final cession of 
Tennessee 

1796 
Tennessee admitted 
to the Union 



The debate on the 
location of the 
Federal capital 



boats or with pack horses. Many of the gentry from 
Virginia came, who had lost their property during the 
war; and the young planters and lawyers took the lead 
in politics. Eleven years after Virginia ceded her claim 
to the territory west of the mountains, Kentucky was 
admitted to the Union as the fifteenth State. 

Four years later, Tennessee added the sixteenth star 
to the flag. The first settlers of Tennessee had fled be- 
yond the mountains from the oppressions of the royal 
governor of North Carolina. Most of these were brave 
and sturdy yeomen, who built palisaded towns for their 
families, cleared the woods, and fought the Indians. 
Soon in the rich valley of the Cumberland, Nashville 
became the chief town; and where the Holston runs 
down to the Tennessee, Knoxville was the center of 
trade. A vast and gloomy forest between* the two set- 
tlements sheltered the wild game and the still wilder 
Indians. North Carolina first ceded this territory to the 
Continental Congress in 1784, and its settlers organized 
the State of Franklin with John Sevier as governor. 
North Carolina then repealed the cession; but, as we 
have seen, five years later, after South Carolina had 
ceded her western claim, North Carolina again ceded the 
territory of Tennessee. In due time, Tennessee was 
admitted to the Union as a State, with Andrew Jackson 
as representative in Congress. 

During the first Congress of the United States there 
was a great debate about a permanent location for the 
federal capital. It was thought it should be near the 
center of population. The following year, in accordance 
with the provision of the Constitution, a census was 
taken, and the center of population was found to be 
twenty-three miles east of Baltimore. One member of 
Conerress declared it would remain there for ages; but if 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 



179 



1790 

it moved at all, it would move toward the east, because The center of 
of the commerce with Europe. Yet, during the adminis- fi°s^t"cens°us^* * ^ 
tration of the first president, the West was already form- 
ing itself into States. And if we do not give close heed 
from this time on in our historical study, we shall not be 
able to follow the westward strides of the people of the 
United States. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

GEORGE WASHINGTON (1789-1797) (Continued), 
FEDERALIST 



1790 



While States and Territories were being cut out of the 
new West, the president and Congress were shaping 
national affairs. The government was moved to Phila- Philadelphia the 
delphia as a temporary residence until the capitol might *^°'p°''^'^ "^^p"*' 
be erected on the Potomac. 

The financial condition of the country was still 
serious. Commerce could not well suffer a higher tax 
on imports, yet there must be more revenue to pay 
the federal debt. An impost tax was accordingly 
put upon distilled spirits manufactured at home, and 
the tariff on foreign liquors increased. Hamilton pro- 
posed a national bank. He explained the national 
banking system of Europe ; and, after much opposi- 
tion, a charter was granted to the bank of the 
United States for twenty years. 

Congress^ then established a mint for coining 
money. There had been no national coinage. Ex- 
cept coppers from some of the colonies, the coin used 
was the product of foreign mints. English guineas, 




ALEXANDER HAMILTON 
1757-1804 



i8o 



NATIONALITY 



1792 
A mint established 



The decimal system 



Trouble brewing 
with England 



1792 
The French people 
depose Louis XVI 



The French appeal 
to Americans for 
aid in establishing 
a republic 



crowns, shillings, and pence were in circulation, and 
many French and Spanish and some German coins. 

During the war, the Spanish dollar was made the basis 
of exchange, owing to the large amount of Spanish 
money used in trade with New Orleans and the West 
Indies. 

Congress now adopted the decimal system, and ordered 
that gold, silver, and a limited amount of copper should 
be coined free at the mint ; the gold to be made into 
eagles, half eagles, and quarter eagles ; the silver into 
dollars, half dollars, quarters, dimes, and half dimes ; 
the copper into cents and half cents. The ratio be- 
tween gold and silver was fixed at fifteen to one. This 
meant that fifteen grains of pure silver should be on a 
legal par with one grain of pure gold. There had been 
little native gold or silver discovered, however, and the 
foreign money continued long in circulation. 

During Washington's first administration clouds began 
to gather over the "rising sun," which Franklin had 
seen. England had not yet given up the western forts 
on the lakes. Congress declared that the treaty had 
been violated, and demanded the surrender of the forts. 
Merchants and shipowners complained that when an 
English ship needed sailors, Americans were impressed 
on the high seas ; and that their vessels were boarded 
and condemned by English officers because of their car- 
rying trade with the French West Indies. 

Meanwhile, the French people overthrew the authority 
of Louis XVI and proclaimed a republic, and, the follow- 
ing year, war broke out between England and France. 

Indeed all Europe was gathering forces to, crush the 
republic in France; for if one throne fell, it might carry 
others down with it. The French Directory called from 
across the sea to the Americans. "We helped you," 



re-elected for a 
second term 



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION l8r 

they said, ' ' when you were struggHng against an 
oppressor. Come and help us." 

This was a stirring appeal to the Anti-Federalists. 
The feeling grew so strong that factions developed into 
parties. The Anti-Federalists, or Republicans, with Republicans and 
Jefferson at their head, were the warm friends of the ^^''"^''^'^ 
Revolutionists in France; the Federalists, with Hamilton 
as their leader, were shocked at the mob rule in Paris, 
and preferred the law and order of a constitutional mon- 
archy such as that of England. Washington hesitated 
to take up arms against England. It seemed best that 
friendly relations should exist between the only two 

English nations. 

^793 

Notwithstanding bitter party feeling, Washington was Washington 

unanimously chosen president for a second term. But 

party feeling increased. The Republicans charged the 

Federalists with trying to conform the government to 

that of England. They themselves copied after the 

French. They discarded silk stockings and powdered 

queues as imitations of the English Georges. They French influences 

wore the pantaloons down to the ankle and close fitting, '° ^°"^^ ^^^"^ 

the vest so short it almost came to the armpits, and the 

coat cut away to a long point behind; the hair was 

cropped short, and the cocked hat was displaced for a 

high hat much too small for the head. Republican 

young ladies wore their hair in ringlets, and minced 

about with their dresses long, and scant in width, in 

great contrast with the wide skirts of the Federalist 

ladies. Mr. and Mrs. were changed to Citizen and Cit- 

ess; and there were liberty caps, cockades, and civic 

feasts, after the fashion of the Republicans of France, 

Washington remained neutral in these troublous times. 

1794 

He sent Chief Justice John Jay to England to obtain johnjay a special 
redress for the seizure of neutral vessels, and to settle '^"''"^ '° England 



l82 



NATIONALITY 



1793 
Citizen Genet 



Washington 
issues a 
proclamation 
of neutrality 



Genet presents his 
official papers to 
Washington 



The Republicans 
give Genet a 
banquet 



Washington 
remains neutral 



boundary lines on the north. Yet he did not sympa- 
thize with France. He was alarmed at the excesses of 
the French mobs. It was when the French envoy, 
Genet, arrived in Charleston on his way to Philadelphia 
to ask aid of the United States that Washington issued 
a proclamation of neutrality, and warned Americans 
from aiding either England or France in their wars. 

Genet, before he even presented his credentials, 
bought and equipped two sailing vessels as privateers, 
and manned them with American sailors to attack Brit- 
ish merchantmen. After a triumphant journey from 
Charleston, he presented his papers to President Wash- 
ington. He complained that the president received him 
coldly, and that the medallion of Louis XVI hung in 
the parlors of the executive mansion. But the French 
minister had no reason to complain of his treatment by 
the Republicans. They gave a banquet at Philadelphia 
in his honor. The toasts denounced aristocrats. Genet 
sang the Marseillaise, the Republican hymn of France. 
He placed the red liberty cap on his own head, and all 
the guests put it on in turn. 

Washington remained firm in his policy of neutrality. 
He said the American people were grateful for the gen- 
erous aid of France, in their time of need; but it seemed 
unwise to involve the United States in European quar- 
rels. Besides, it had been Louis XVI and Lafayette who 
had sent aid to the colonies. The present French 
Republic had beheaded the one, and sent the other 
into exile. 

When Genet found that he could not mold Washing- 
ton to his views, he endeavored to alienate the people 
from him. He used violent language against the presi- 
dent, filled out commissions for American officers in the 
French army, and sent agents to Kentucky to incite the 



WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 



183 



settlers to take up arms against the Spanish settlements 

on the Mississippi. j» 

Genet was thought to have had much to do toward the whisky riots in 
riots in western Pennsylvania, where the people refused =""^y^^"'* 
to pay the tax on whisky, and broke into the court rooms. 
When Washington issued a proclamation warning the 
mobs to disperse, they did not obey, and fired into the 
tax collectors; whereupon the president sent a regiment 
of fifteen hundred men, and dispersed the rioters. The 
Republicans claimed that this was an invasion of States' 
rights, and Genet added to their ill humor by abusive Genet writes letters 
letters to the press against the administration. Washing- admi'nisLrtion ; 
ton demanded Genet's removal, and he sailed soon after is removed 

from office 

for France. ^^^^ 

Meanwhile John Jay concluded a new treaty with The jay treaty 
Great Britain. Reparation was pledged for the injuries 
done to American shipping; the posts of 
Detroit, Oswego, and Mackinaw were sur- 
rendered; the northern boundary line was 
agreed upon, and a restricted trade with 
the British West Indies was granted; but 
the impressment of American sailors was 
not mentioned. After a bitter debate the 
Jay treaty was ratified by the Senate. That 
year, 1795, Thomas Pinckney negotiated a 
treaty with Spain, by which "a place of 
deposit " was to be granted within her ter- 
ritory for transshipment of wares, and the 

boundary line was affirmed as the thirty- 
first degree of north latitude. Three years 
\ater, the part of West Florida thus as- 
sured was organized as the Mississippi 
Territory. 




ELECTION OF 1796 



As the time approached for another presidential elec- 



1 84 



NATIONALITY 



1796 
Washington'E 
farewell address 
(September) 



1797 
John Adams 
inaugurated the 
second president 



tion, Washington was urged by his friends to serve yet 
another term. But he refused with dignity. In his 
farewell address he warned the people against sec- 
tional strife and attacks upon established authority. He 
pointed out the danger of becoming a tool in the struggle 
for the balance of power among the rulers of Europe; 
and for a time faction was silenced. All parties claimed 
the great man. When he returned to Mount Vernon, 
he bore with him the respect of the whole nation. 

John Adams, the candidate of the Federalists, became 
president, and Thomas Jefferson, the candidate of the 
Republicans, vice-president. 



J^".. 




MOUNT VERNON 



CHAPTER XXVII 



JOHN ADAMS (SECOND PRESIDENT, 1797-1801) 
FEDERALIST 

The wise policy of Washington in foreign affairs was 
continued by President Adams. The French Repubhc 
had been greatly incensed over the Jay treaty; and 
when President Adams insisted on remaining neutral, The French 
the Directory, consisting of five men who then formed AmerlcZ^^'^' 
the French government, ordered French men-of-war to commerce 
assail our commerce on the seas. Commission- 
ers John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry were sent 
to France to join minister Charles C. Pinckney 
in the attempt to make a peaceable adjustment 
of the difftculties. 

When the French agents hinted that peace 
might be secured by the payment of money, 
Pinckney exclaimed: " Millions for defense, but 
not one cent for tribute." The commissioners 
were then ordered to leave France. 

This demand for a bribe was published with 
the names of the French agents represented by X, Y, The x, y, z leaers 
and Z. The affairs created the wildest excitement in 
America. It had already become evident that Napoleon 
was marching into a throne, and the Republicans were g 

disappointed in their idol. Even Jefferson now declared Both political 
that in all except commercial relations the United States neutraih^"^"*^ 
should remain separate from both England and France. 

*' Millions for defense, but not one cent for tribute," 
became the watchword of the nation. The French 
and American flags entwined in the taverns were sepa- 
rated. The French tricolor was torn from the hats, and 




JOHN ADAMS 
1735-1826 



1 86 



NATIONALITY 



The government 
creates the navy 
department (April) 



Washington 
apDointed 
lieutenant-general 
of the army 



" Hail, Columbia 1 ' 



1799 
Death of General 
Washington 
(December 14) 



the black cockade of the Federalists was pinned in its 
stead. The government prepared for war. It created 
the navy department, and ordered frigates to be built. 
When the forty-four-gun frigate United States was 
launched from the docks at Philadelphia, a hundred 
other lighter craft sported about her. Many were 
privateers to prey upon French commerce. The Ameri- 
can frigate Co7istellation captured the French Insur- 
geante, the Boston took the Berceati, and victory followed 
victory on the sea. 

Washington was appointed lieutenant-general of the 
provisional army, and Alexander Hamilton first major 
general. The sons of the revolutionary heroes, from all 
over the country, offered to enlist in defense of their 
country's honor; and "Hail, Columbia!" was written, 
and sung in the streets on muster days. 

But while the gathering clans awaited the time when 
war would be formally declared, and their commander 
take the field in person, he obeyed a yet higher call than 
that of his country. On the fourteenth day of December, 
Washington died, at his home. Mount Vernon, after 
an illness of only a day. The whole nation was plunged 
into grief. Touching tributes were offered to his mem- 
ory. One of the bravest generals declared Washington 
•'first in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of 
his countrymen;" one of the most eloquent orators 
called him ' ' the greatest of good men, and the best of 
great men." 

Europe joined America in praise of the dead patriot, 
and, a few years later, the English statesman. Lord 
Brougham, said : " Until time shall be no more a test of 
the progress which our race has made in wisdom and 
virtue will be derived from the veneration paid to the 
immortal name of Washington." 



ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 1 8/ 

While the war fever against France lasted, the admin- a personal tax 
istration of Adams was popular with the people ; but 
with the president and both houses at th§ir command 
the Federalists enacted laws which soon brought dis- 
aster on their party. To help pay the expenses of the 
impending war they laid a direct tax on personal prop- 
erty. This caused riots. 

. . ^798 

They passed new naturalization laws, requiring four- a new Naturaiiza- 

teen years' residence, instead of five. Then, in view of "°° ^" 

•' ' ' (June '8) 

the troubles caused by French and English spies and 
busybodies, they passed the Alien Act, by which the The Alien Act 
president was authorized to send foreigners out of the ^^""^'^^ 
country. The Republicans declared that this did away 
with the right of trial by jury, and placed too much 
power with the executive. 

Partisan excitement reached the highest pitch when The sedition Act 
the Sedition Act was passed. This law punished with '-^"'y''*^ 
fines and imprisonment the publication of any writing 
calculated to bring Congress or the president " into con- 
tempt or disrepute." 

' ' The heart and the life of a free government is a free 
press," said the Republicans. They recalled how out- The Republicans 
raged their ancestors had been in the House of Com- --"aii the sedition 

law in King 

mons in the time of King James, when the speaker of James's time 
the House said he had been "ordered to interrupt any 
that should speak ill of the king's ministers;" how 
about a hundred commoners sat silenced with their own 
passions, how the great Pym himself rose only to sit 
down choked with tears, and how there was expostulat- 
ing and prophesying of the ruin of the country when the 
right of free speech was taken away from the people. 

••And now," cried the Republicans, "more than a 
hundred years later, the descendants of those freemen 
who brought a king's head to the block for tyranny are 



i88 



NATIONALITY 



The theory of 
nullification 



1800 
Peace between 
France and the 
United States 
(September) 



The "caucus" 



attempting to exercise his tyrannical power. Was John 
Adams then to become a king ? The next step would be 
to make him president for life ! " 

Now, the writers of the Republican pamphlets abused 
their opportunities most shamefully ; but even so stal- 
wart a Federalist as Hamilton opposed the Sedition Law 
as unwise. The Alien Act was never enforced. On the 
day arrests were made under the Sedition Act, fines were 
paid by public subscription. It was said that to be 
arrested for free speech straightway made a man eligible 
for office with the Republicans. The unwise laws were 
soon repealed, but they had already ruined the party 
that made them. Besides they had emphasized a divi- 
sion of opinion about States' rights. The Republicans 
in Kentucky and Virginia declared the Alien and Sedition 
Acts unconstitutional, and Kentucky maintained that 
when a State decided a law of the United States illegal, 
she had the right to nullify it. This new theory of nul- 
lification caused much trouble later on. 

When peace between France and the United States 
was secured by arbitration, the war spirit died away, and 
with it the last enthusiasm for the Federal party. It 
had been a great party; but when it attempted to deprive 
the people of what they considered their reserved consti- 
tutional rights, it was overwhelmed with disaster at the 
polls. A congressional caucus, or meeting, of Repub- 
licans chose Thomas Jefferson for president and Aaron 
Burr for vice-president, and a caucus of Federalists, 
John Adams and Charles C. Pinckney. When the 
distinguished list of nominees was submitted to the peo- 
ple, each State chose electors who would vote for its 
favorites. Jefferson and Burr had the two highest elect- 
oral votes. Each receiving the same number, the elec- 
tion, according to the Constitution, devolved on the 
House of Representatives. 



ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION 



189 



Most of the Federalists in the House voted for 
Burr, which made a tie. For a time it looked as 
day for the inauguration would arrive 
with no one to be inaugurated. After a 
long contest, some of the Federalists cast 
blank votes, and thus Thomas Jefferson, 
the Republican, who had written the 
Declaration of Independence, was elected 
to the place of John Adams, the Fed- 
eralist, who had seconded the motion 
that a Declaration of Independence 
should be written. Aaron Burr became, 
of course, vice-president; but to prevent 
future discord, the twelfth amendment^ 
was added to the Constitution, providing 
for separate ballots for president and 
vice-president. 



Aaron 
if the 




ELECTION OF 1800 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

THOMAS JEFFERSON (THIRD PRESIDENT, i8oi-i8og) 
DEMOCRATIC- REPUBLICAN 



Cessions of land on the Potomac, by Maryland and The District of 
Virginia, were the beginnings of the District of Colum- washingtoTthe 
bia. At Washington, the federal capitol, and public capital city 
forts, arsenals, and dockyards were built. The national 
domain was placed by the Constitution ^ under the 
exclusive control of Congress. ^^ 

Thomas Jefferson was the first president inaugurated The inauguration 



•See Constitution of the United States, Appendix. 



190 



NATIONALITY 



Chief Justice 
[ohn Marshall 



Jefferson's 
administration is 
popular 




THOMAS JEFFERSON 
1743-1826 



The Democratic- 
Republican Congress 



at Washington, then a straggling village in the woods. 
Attired in plain citizen's dress, the choice of the Demo- 
cratic-Republicans was received in the Senate chamber 
by the polished vice-president, Aaron Burr, and sworn 
into office by Chief Justice John Marshall, of Virginia. 
In an inaugural message to Congress, Jefferson prophe- 
sied the spread and development of the young nation, 
over which he was called to preside. " I believe this to 
i?e the strongest government on earth," he said. But 
the Federalists, believing that the "Democrat-Repub- 
licans" would bring ruin to even the strongest of gov- 
ernments, stood in the background, waiting for the day 
when the people would again call them to office. 

Meantime President Jefferson had both houses in 
full sympathy with his acts. His administration was 
popular with the masses from the very beginning. He 
disregarded many rules of etiquette observed by Wash- 
ington and Adams. He would not allow his birth- 
day to be known lest it be celebrated "after the 
fashion of kings," whom he had learned to despise 
in the courts of Europe. He only opened the 
White House to the public on New Year's and the 
Fourth of July. Everybody was welcome then. 
People who came in carriages and those who came 
on foot, jostled against one another as they shook 
the president by the hand. 

President Jefferson always remembered the names 
of his guests. His travels abroad had given him 
information. He was interested in science, and 
held constant correspondence with the most learned men 
of Europe. 

Congress repealed many of the Federalist laws. It 
reduced the army and navy, abolished the tax on per- 
sonal property, and steadily diminished the public debt. 



vast 



JEFFERSON S ADMINISTRATION 



191 




Many things occurred to add glory to Jefferson's ad- The Barbary powen. 
ministration. The victories of the American navy over 
the Barbary powers created enthusiasm. 

Morocco, Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli were Mohamme- 
dan countries, which, since the time of Columbus, had 
preyed upon the commerce of Christians. To pre- 
vent these pirates from seizing cargoes, selling sail- 
ors, and holding captains for ransom, the nations of 
Europe paid tribute; and the United States had al- 
ready paid nearly two millions of dollars. 

When the Dey of Algiers compelled the captain 
of the George WasJiingto7i to carry dispatches for 
him, and the American frigate sailed for Constanti- 
nople under the flag of the Turks, President Jeffer- 
son set the first example among Christian rulers of 
defying the Barbary powers. He sent a fleet in- Stephen decatur 
stead of more tribute. When Tripoli began to cap- 
ture American trading vessels. Lieutenant Decatur boldly 
entered the harbor of Tripoli, burned an American ves- 
sel which had been seized, and bombarded the town from 
the harbor, while a land expedition attacked it from the 
east. In the end, the bashaw was willing enough to make 
peace, and leave tribute out of the bargain. 

Other nations gladly followed the example of the The Mediterranean 
United States, and the Mediterranean became free for comnTe'rce'"^"^^" 

commerce. The Fed- 
eralists claimed some 
glory for these victo- 
ries. They said that 

if John Adams, the John Adams, the 

' ' Father of the Ameri- 
can Navy," had not established the navy department 
and built the squadrons, there could have been no such 
victories over the pirates. 



I779-I820 

1803 

Decatur at Tripoli 



1805 




" Father of the 
American Navy" 



192 



NATIONALITY 



The United States 
secures the carrj-ing 
trade of Europe 



1803 
Territorial expan- 
sion 



1800 
Napoleon becomes 
first consul 

1801 
Santo Domingo's 
trade 



179I 
Toussaint 
L'Ouverture heads 
a revolution 



A wonderful prosperity in home affairs marked the first 
term of Jefferson's administration. Commerce increased 
enormously. The powers of Europe were preparing for 
war with one another, and American farmers furnished 
the breadstuffs for their standing armies, with wheat at 
two and three dollars a bushel. Because it was not safe 
for European merchants to send goods in their own ves- 
sels, the neutral vessels of the Americans did most of 
the carrying trade. French and Spanish merchants in 
the West Indies brought their wares to American ports 
where they paid customs and reshipped in American ves- 
sels. Import duties came in so fast that the public debt 
was soon nearly paid off. 

The territory of the United States was increased by 
the purchase of Louisiana.' This province west of the 
Mississippi was, as we have seen, ceded by France to 
Spain after the French and Indian war. Napoleon, after 
he became first consul of France, bought it back again, 
intending to establish a colonial empire there. To further 
his plans, he wished to secure control of the French lands 
in the West Indies, which were very profitable. In the 
island of Santo Domingo "alone, the trade in cotton, sugar, 
coffee, and indigo employed seventy thousand seamen. 

Now, two thirds of the population of Santo Domingo 
had once been negro slaves. A few years before, the 
slaves had freed themselves, and overthrown the French 
rule in a revolution under Toussaint L' Ouverturc. This 
wonderful negro, after ruling the island as president for 
a few years, was captured, and taken to France. But 
the negroes rose in rebellion again. They set up their 
own government, and, during the war between France 
and England, opened their ports to neutrals, so that a 



* See map of territorial growth. 



8 Haiti. 



Jefferson's administration 193 

brisk trade sprang up between Santo Domingo and the 
ports of the United States. 

Napoleon determined to conquer the Dominicans, 
and punish the Americans for trading with them. His 
army was ready to sail to New Orleans as a base of sup- 
plies, when war was again threatened between England 
and France. ^g^ 

The wily French consul knew that, in case of war, The Louisiana 
he ran the risk of losing Louisiana. He needed money, ^""^"^ ^^^ 
and it was, perhaps, for this reason that he offered to 
sell the province to the United States, In 1803 James 
Monroe and Robert R. Livingston negotiated the pur- 
chase for fifteen million dollars. 

In the last month of that year, American troops 
marched to New Orleans. Spanish troops received 
them at the gates, and to the national airs of France 
and America they marched together to the city hall. 
The French flag was slowly lowered while the stars and 
stripes were raised on the flagstaff, and Governor Clai- 
borne, in the name of President Jefferson, welcomed the 
inhabitants as citizens of the United States. New 
Orleans, with a mixed population of about twenty-five 
thousand French, Spanish, and Mexicans, was quite dif- 
ferent in laws, religion, and language from any other 
city within the Union. 

A Territory was soon organized, comprising about 
the present boundaries of Louisiana. The remaining 
portion was called the " District of Louisiana." 

Almost nothing was known of the vast new District 

of Louisiana lying between the Mississippi River and the 

Rocky Mountains. _ _ - 

•^ , 1 804-1806 

Jefferson sent two young men, Meriwether Lewis and Lewis and ciark 
William Clark, to explore it, with instructions to find *^'''*''"' 
the source of the Missouri, to reach the Pacific coast by 
13 



194 



NATIONALITY 



I 805- I 807 
The expeditions 
of Zebulon Pike 



'= The Great 
American Desert" 



the nearest way, and to learn all about the country 
through which they passed. The two travelers set out 
on their journey at the trading post of St. Louis, 

With toil and privations, they found what seemed to 
be the source of the Missouri; they crossed the great 
divide of the Rocky Mountains, and after many perilous 
hardships, reached the Columbia, which carried them 
to the sea. They were gone two years, and traveled 
over eight thousand miles. 

About the same time, Zebulon Pike explored what he 
wrongly thought to be the sources of the Mississippi; 
and then, in another expedition, crossed Kansas, pushed 
up the Arkansas, and reached the mountain called Pike's 
Peak. In a search for the Red River, Pike found the 
Rio Grande, was taken prisoner by the Spaniards, and 
carried to Santa Fe. He finally reached the United 
States through Mexico and Texas. 

Although these explorers brought back much informa- 
tion about high mountains and broad rivers, they called 
the country be3'ond the Mississippi the ' ' Great Ameri- 
can Desert." 

A geographer of the day said: " It has been supposed 
that all settlers who go beyond the Mississippi will be 
forever lost to the United States." In the minds of the 
schoolboys, the region was like the Sahara of Africa; 
and their fathers thought it was wisely ordered that a 
desert lay beyond the great river. "If it were fertile 
there," they said, "our citizens would wander too fan 
Our Republic would soon be divided." To us these 
ideas seem very strange. The noble States of Arkansas, 
Missouri, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Wyoming, Montana, 
and the Dakotas lie exactly in the * ' Great American 
Desert." 

Indeed, at that very time the population was moving 



Jefferson's administration 195 

toward this "desert." The Federal government had di- ^g^^ 

vided the Northwest Territory, and from a part of it Ohio Ohio becomes 

had been cut out, and admitted to the Union as the sev- ^ "''^o 
' 1800 

enteentH State. The rest of the Northwest had been Indiana Territory 
called Indiana Territory, with General William Henry ""^^^"'^^ 
Harrison as governor. About the same time Mississippi Georgia cedes her 

/T^., 1 ji • t i ijf western territory 

Territory was enlarged by cession of western land from 
Georgia. 

The first administration of President Jefferson was so jgo^ 

popular that he was re-elected president for a second Jefferson re-eiected 
term. Aaron Burr was thought to have schemed with 
the Federalists for his own advancement, and, in his 
place, George Clinton of New York was elected vice- 
president by the Democratic-Republicans. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

THOMAS JEFFERSON (1801-1809) (Continued). 
DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN 

Aaron Burr was defeated for the governorship of New 
York, and this was largely due to the influence of Alexander Hamilton 
Alexander Hamilton. Burr challenged Hamilton, and *" "'^"°° 
killed him in a duel. There was grievous mourning for 
the brilliant statesman. Federalists wore black thirty 
days for the most intimate friend of Washington and the 
great constructive genius of the young Republic. The 
years have rather increased than diminished the fame of 
Alexander Hamilton, the first secretary of the treasury. 
More than a quarter of a century after his death, Daniel 
Webster said: " He smote the rock of national resources 
and abundant streams of revenue gushed forth. He 



196 NATIONALITY 

touched the dead corpse of public credit, and it sprang 
upon its feet. " 

A coroner's jury found Burr guilty of murder. The 

Burr's ambitious imbittcrcd man fled from New York to the West. His 

journeyinte est gg^iug ^^g great. The couqucst of Texas, which then 

belonged to Spain, and its union with the States and 

Territories west of the Alleghanies to form an empire, 

seemed a dazzling possibility. Men were armed, boats 

built, and messengers employed to further the plan. 

President Jefferson heard rumors that the West was 

g slipping from the United States. He sent officers to 

Burr tried for arrest Aaron Burr, and ordered him to be tried for 

treason at Richmond ^^^^^^^ -^ ^^e House of Burgesscs at Richmoud, Va. 

The best legal talent in the country was gathered in 
the Southern city: John Randolph, of Virginia, noted 
already in Congress for his stinging sarcasm and schol- 
arly eloquence; Henry Clay, the young senator from Ken- 
tucky, famous in debate; Andrew Jackson, the hero of 
the Tennessee law courts; William Wirt, of the Rich- 
mond bar, and many other distinguished lawyers argued 
the case. Chief Justice John Marshall presided at the 
trial. There was not sufficient evidence to convict Burr 
of treason. But the slayer of Alexander Hamilton 
wandered in foreign lands, and, many years after, 
returned to New York to die in poverty and neglect. 
It had been the policy of both Washington and Adams 

Jefferson discourages to build up a uavy to protcct American commerce. 

then"a"^^^°' Jeffersou considered a navy a useless expense. He 

thought it would be better to give up commerce alto- 
gether than be obliged to protect it, and sold all the 
government's ships but thirteen. At the beginning of 
his second administration events occurred which put our 
merchant marine in danger. 

American ships, as neutrals, had been kept busy 



JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 197 

carrying for foreign merchants, and both France and 
England were angered at this immense commerce, which 
our small navy could not protect. 

Both decided to plunder American vessels if the 
United States would not form an alliance. If they ^g^ 

would be a foe to neither, they should be a friend to England and France 
neither. Each nation finally issued decrees forbidding or!i"utrars ^ 
neutral vessels to enter the ports of the other or her 
allies. Great Britain continued to claim the right to 
board a ship belonging to any nation, and impress sailors 
as British subjects. ' ' Once a subject, always a sub- 
ject," was the motto of Great Britain. Many American impressment of 

• 1 ■ J J njAr'ia.-r-> American sailors 

sailors were impressed, and compelled to fight r ranee. 
Sometimes a whole crew was taken, and the vessel left 
to float away. 

Between impressment and confiscation of neutral ves- 
sels, a great change came to American commerce. 
Merchants sent off ships which did not come back. It 
was evident that America must soon make a struggle for 
its place on the sea, where European nations had bat- 
tled for centuries. „ , 

1806 

Congress passed the Non-importation Act, prohibiting The Non-impona- 
the importation of a few articles of British make which "°" ^^^ 
might be manufactured in America. This did not mend 
matters. British officers missed no opportunity to insult „ 

our fiag. When, at last, the frigate Chesapeake, fired The Leopard fires 
into by the British Leopard, came into Norfolk harbor -'° ''^^ ^^--^-^^ 
with her dead, there was the greatest uproar. 

Jefferson wrote: "This country has never been in 
such excitement since the battle of Lexington." Mer- 
chants and business men all ever the country demanded 
a navy to measure arms with our foes. Jefferson did 
not believe a navy could be built powerful enough to 
defeat the British on the sea. He said it would be 



198 NATIONALITY 

1807 

The Embargo Act cheaper to put a stop to American commerce, and thus 
injure British trade. And so an Embargo Act was 
passed, forbidding American vessels to leave port for a 
foreign country. 

This saved our flag from being insulted in such a way 
as to involve the nation in war, but it ruined our com- 
merce. "It is like cutting off the toes to cure the 
corns," said the sarcastic John Randolph, of Roanoke. 
Napoleon was pleased at the embargo, because it injured 
the trade of Great Britain, while that nation declared 
that she did not need American trade, and sent cotton 
seed to Africa to raise her own cotton, and set her sub- 
jects in the West Indies to planting her own corn. 

The Americans alone really suffered from the Embargo 

Act. For years their ports had been busy. The wharves 

had been strewn with merchandise; and merchants and 

brokers had driven trade from morning till night. But 

now there was neither shipbuilding, nor rope walks, nor 

sail making. Thirty thousand seamen of New England 

were out of employment, and millions of dollars were 

g^g lost in the embargoed wares. 

Riots over the There were riots on the first anniversary of the act, 

Emba.go Ac. ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ ^^ p^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ie militia. There was 

even talk among the Federalists of seceding from the 
Union, and forming the Confederacy of New England. 

The feeling^ against the Embargo Act was so strong 

The Non-intercourse that the followiug year the Non-intercourse Act was 

^^' passed as a substitute. This forbade trade with France 

and Great Britain until they would cease their offensive 

attitude, but allowed trade with countries not under their 

control. 

The Embargo Act did not injure Jefferson with his 
own party. He was urged to accept the nomination for 
a third term; but the "Great Commoner" followed the 



Jefferson's administration 



199 



footsteps of Washington. He bade farewell to ambition, 
and retired to Monticello, to live among his books and 
his friends. 

Three days after the Non-mtercourse Bill had been james Madison 
signed by Jefferson, James Madison, of Virginia, was '^^^^ 
inaugurated president. 



CHAPTER XXX 




JAMES MADISON (FOURTH PRESI- 
DENT, 1809-1817) 

DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN 



nacl Madison continues 
the policy of the 
Democratic- 
Republicans 



1810 



[RESIDENT MADISON, who 

been secretary of state under Jef¥er 
son, continued the policy of the Dem 
ocratic-Republican party, and had the 
support of Congress. When neither 
Great Britain nor France paid the least heed 
to the Non-Intercourse Act, Congress passed 
the " Macon Bill," which restored trade with The "Macon Bin 
both nations, but declared that if only one ^^^^^ ' ^^ '' 
nation would repeal its laws against American commerce, 
non-intercourse should be proclaimed with the other. 

Napoleon pretended that he would revoke his decrees, Napoleon's 
and commerce began again between France and the ''^'^'*"*' 
United States. But a whole American fleet, valued at 
more than ten million dollars, was soon seized in French 
ports. Many years later France was forced to pay an 
indemnity for this loss. Great Britain refused to repeal 
her decree, trade ceased, and our minister was recalled 
from London. Our relations with Great Britain became 



200 



NATIONALITY 



War with 
the Miamis 




JAMES MADISON 
1751-1836 



Battle of Tippecanoe 



Thel'welfth Congress 
:i war congress 



Henry Clay and 
John C. Calhoun 



more and more strained, until she seized American mer- 
chantmen without any excuse whatever. 

Meantime our frontiers were attacked by the Indians. 
Although William Henry Harrison, governor of the Ter- 
ritory of Indiana, had been careful to purchase the 
Western lands, the Indians declared that no sign- 
ing of a paper could cancel their right to the 
soil. They could not understand why they 
might not strip bark to build wigwams, or 
fashion canoes from timber on the lands 
they had sold. 

At last they found a leader in Tecums'eh, 
chief of the Shawnees, who said he would 
finish the work that Pontiac had only be- 
gun. Urged on by the British of Canada, 
he established headquarters on Tippecanoe 
Creek, near the present town of Lafayette, Ind., 
and plotted how best to unite all the Indian confederacies. 
While Tecumseh was in the South stirring up the Ap- 
palachian tribes for his bloody work, Harrison advanced 
upon Tippecanoe, and defeated the Indians in a terrible 
battle. When Tecumseh returned, and found his village 
in ruins, he hastened beyond the St. Lawrence to join 
his forces with the British. 

That same year the twelfth Congress met to decide 
whether there should be war with England. Something 
had to be done. The British sloops of war were parad- 
ing up^nd down the coast like great Goliaths, defying 
the little American navy to come out and fight them. 
There were many young men in Congress who could not 
endure the insults of the British. Among them were 
Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and John C. Calhoun, of 
South Carolina. These brilliant young orators said 
peaceable means had been resorted to, and arbitration 



MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 



20I 



opposes a war with 
Great Britain 




was out of the question. The impetuous Clay was made Henry ciay. speake 
speaker of the House, and ore^anized committees which "J'^e House of 

^ <-> Representatives 

would take radical measures for either peace or war. 

In New England, where commerce was almost the sole John Randolph 
occupation of the people, war was bitterly opposed 
Many of the older statesmen, with John Ran 
dolph, of Virginia, as their leader, urged peace 
with Great Britain. When upbraided with an- 
glomania, Randolph cried: "Strange that we 
Americans find no difficulty in maintaining rela- 
tions of peace with Turks and infidels of every 
clime and color ! With them we can trade 
and treat; but name England, and we are up 
in arms against her; against those whose blood 
runs in our veins; in common with whom we 
claim Shakespeare, Milton, Newton, and Locke as 
brethren. Her form of government is the freest on earth 
except our own, and from it every principle of our in- 
stitutions has been borrowed." 

President Madison wanted peace. But Harrison's 
campaign against the Indians in the West had aroused 
the war spirit, and there was fresh resentment toward the 
British when Tecumseh and his warriors were received 
in Canada. After a long and exciting debate. Congress 
declared for war with Great Britain on the grounds that 
she had interfered with American commerce, impressed 
American sailors, and incited the Indians on the fron- 
tiers to massacre American settlers. 

President Madison issued a proclamation of war. 
There were armies to recruit, ships of the navy to build 
and commission, and merchantmen to license to arm 
themselves. Congress saw the need of a military school, 
and made an appropriation for the Academy at West 
Point, which had been established on the Hudson. 



JOHN C. CALHOUN 

1782-1850 



Causes of the War 
of 1812 



I812 

Madison declares 
war against Great 
Britain (June 18) 



202 



NATIONALITY 



Land forces 



Defeat in the 
Northwest 



Rensselaer crossed 




Naval forces 



The Essex captures 
the Alerl (August 13) 

The Constitution 
sinks the Guerrit;re 

(August 19) 
The Wasp captures 
the Frolic 
(October 17) 
The United States, 
the Macedonian 
(October 25) 
The " wooden walls 
of Columbia" 
victorious every- 
where 



At the opening of hostilities, affairs on land looked 
very gloomy, indeed; General William Hull, who began 
an invasion of Canada, was compelled at Detroit to 
surrender his army of two thousand men, with all the 
forts and garrisons in the Northwest. General Van 
the Niagara River, but was de- 
feated at Queenstown, and Gen- 
eral Dearborn, who had ex- 
pected to meet the victorious 
armies of Hull and Van Rensse- 
laer at Montreal, halted on the 
northern boundaries of New York. 
The land forces had accomplished nothing 
at the close of the year. 
There were victories on the sea, however, from the 
very beginning. Our whaling and sealing industries had 
produced good sailors, and American merchantmen were 
manned by intelligent and patriotic tars who sought re- 
venge for years of insults on the sea. 

In August, Captain Porter, on the Essex, captured 
the British sloop Alert. Six days later Captain Isaac 
Hull, on the Con^stitution, which was soon to win the 
name of "Old Ironsides," sunk the Guerriere off the 
coast of Massachusetts. Then the Wasp captured the 
British Frolic. And while a naval ball at Washington 
was celebrating these victories, Stephen Decatur's mes- 
senger from the frigate United States hurried into the 
hall bearing the ensign of the British Macedo7iian; and 
there were cheers for the "wooden walls of Columbia,'' 
as the trophy was hung with the other captured flags. 

Great Britain was astounded. Her newspapers would 
hardly credit the news. ' ' Could the ' mistress of the 
seas' be defeated by a piece of bunting flying at the 
masthead of a few fir-built frigates, manned by a hand- 



MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 203 

ful of outlaws? " One paper, after the capture of the The constitution 

Java by the Co7istitution, exclaimed: "Five hundred m'TcembefT* 

British vessels and three frigates have been captured in 

seven months by the Americans. Can the English 

people hear this unmoved ? Down to this moment not 

an American frigate has struck her flag. They insult 

and laugh at us; they leave their posts when they please, 

and return when it suits their convenience; they traverse 

the Atlantic; they beset the West India Islands; they 

advance to the very chops of the channel; they parade 

along the coasts of South America; nothing chases, 

nothing intercepts, nothing engages them but yields to 

them a triumph." All this was pleasant reading for the 

Americans. 

1813 

A few months later, the Chesapeake was attacked by The Chesapeake 
the British frigate Shannon near Boston. As brave ^'■■■';«^.f>."=°';^^»° 

<-> the British Shannon 

Captain Lawrence, mortally wounded, was carried tJune i) 

below, he cried: "Don't give up the ship!" The 
(r/i:^.?^/^^/^^ was captured; but the rejoicing in England 
over this victory showed more plainly than anything else 
how the British were learning to fear the American 
navy. They now sent over all their available ships to 
strengthen the blockade of our coast. 

Congress voted to build more vessels. congress votes to 

T-ii • , 1 TT /-^i build more ships 

There was new courage m the army. Henry Clay, 
who had so eagerly advocated the war, went from town 
to town throughout the West, urging recruits, until 
fifteen thousand men volunteered and ten thousand wiiiiam Henry 
more enrolled. William Henry Harrison, the hero of "mmandofthe 
Tippecanoe, was given command of the army in the army in the 
Northwest. A detachment of Harrison's army was 
defeated on the River Raisin; a force of British and 
Indians laid siege to the remainder in Fort Meigs, but 
were driven away by re-enforcements. Yet it began to 



204 



NATIONALITY 



1813 

Perry's victory 
On Lake Erie 
(September 10) 




OLIVER H. PERRY 
1785-1819 



The battle on the 
Thames (October i) 



1814 

Chippewa (July 5) 
Lundy's Lane 
(July 25) 



War with the 
Creeks 



look as if the country north of the Ohio would again 
belong to the British. 

The only hope seemed to lie in the navy. Lake Erie 
was the key to the West. Nine small American vessels, 
which had been built from the forests along the shores 
of the lake, launched forth to meet a British squadron 
near Sandusky, Ohio. Oliver Hazard Perry, of Rhode 
Island, on the ilagship Lazvrc?icc, met two of the largest 
British men-of-war. At the mast of Perry's ship 
floated a blue pennon with the dying words of 
Lawrence, " Don't give up the ship!" The sail- 
ors fought until only Perry and eight comrades 
were left. These jumped into a boat with their 
watchwords waving defiance, rowed through shot 
and shell to the Niagara, and hoisting the flag, 
captured the whole British fleet. ^ 

Perry's dispatch to General Harrison read: 
' ' We have met the enemy, and they are ours, 
— two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one 
sloop! " 

On Perry's ships, Harrison hurried to Canada, and 
defeated the British on the Thames River. Tecumseh 
was slain; the Indians deserted the British. Perry had 
control of Lake Erie, and Harrison stood on the thresh- 
old of Canada. In the West, the victory was complete. 
In the North Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott won 
two bloody battles at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane; but 
they could not advance any farther, and returned to 
New York. 

In the South, the British and Spaniards had been 
inciting the Creeks against the American settlements. 
When an earthquake shook the ground beneath their 



^ Read Roosevelt's " Naval War of 1812." 



MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 



205 




The British fleet in 
Chesapeake Bay 



feet, or a comet sped across the sky, the Creeks said jackson makes 
Tecumseh's ghost could not slumber till they had gone ^^dirj'"" **"' 
on the warpath to the Americans. The warriors spread 
fire and death on the southwestern frontier until 
Andrew Jackson, with his Tennessee troops, forced 
them to sue for peace. 

By this time, the allied powers of Europe had 
conquered Napoleon. The government of Great 
Britain was free to devote its entire attention to 
the United States. The sea grew white with sails; 
our coast was blockaded. Sixty men-of-war, with a 
large land force on board, cast anchor in Chesapeake 
Bay and its tributaries. 

Before the American troops could be collected to 
meet them, the British landed and a detachment 
marched to Washington. President Madison, his cabi- Burning of 
net, and the citizens fled from the capital.^ The public 
buildings were burned, and then the British infantry were 
conveyed farther up the Chesapeake. They landed, and 
advanced toward Baltimore, while the naval force bom- 
barded Fort Mc Henry, two miles below the city. In 
the midst of the roar of cannon, Francis 
Scott Key, an American prisoner on 
board a British ship, wrote the " Star- 
-^pangled Banner, " which afterward be- 
came a national hymn. The British 
soon abandoned the siege of Baltimore, 
and sailed to Halifax. 

The people of New England now de- 
manded peace at any price. There had 
been no commerce for more than two 
years, and even the fishing trade was 



Washington 
(August 24) 




"The Star- 
spangled Banner" 



FRANCIS SCOTT 

1 780-1845 



KEY 



1 Read "Memoirs of Dolly Madison." 



2o6 



NATIONALITY 



The Hartford 
cODventioo 



1814 
The treaty of Ghent 
(December 24) 



1815 
The battle of New 
Orleans (January 8 



President Madison 

hears of the victory 

(February) 



ruined. A convention, held at Hartford with closed 
doors, demanded, among other things, that the States 
of New England might collect the revenues at their 
ports, in order to defend their commerce better than the 
general government seemed able to do. 

At that very time a treaty of peace was being nego- 
tiated at Ghent between the American and British 
commissioners; but there was no way to announce the 
fact, and so the war continued. An Atlantic cable 
would have saved many lives. 

The British began to concentrate a force of twenty 
thousand soldiers and sailors around New Orleans with 
the intention of making it the base of supplies. An 
army of twelve thousand men, under Sir Edward 
Pakenham, landed near the city 
in December. These veterans 
from the battlefields of Europe 
faced huge breastworks thrown 
up by Andrew Jackson and his 
backwoods volunteers. A motly crowd of Tennesseans, 
Kentuckians, Indians, free negroes, and Spanish Cre- 
oles waited behind the intrenchments. There were 
several skirmishes, and on the eighth of January, in 
an engagement of less than half an hour, nearly two 
thousand British were killed, wounded, and missing. 
General Pakenham was among the slain. The British 
withdrew to their camp and soon sailed away. 

Jackson re-entered the city with his men, only eight of 
whom had been killed. He was met by the delighted 
people with flowers and shouts of joy, and a Te Deiini 
was chanted in the cathedral. When messengers reached 
Washington with news of the victory at New Orleans, 
there were bonfires and wild huzzahs. In the midst of 
the rejoicing, tidings came of the treaty of peace. Then, 




MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 20/ 

indeed, there was rejoicing everywhere; flags were run 
up on the staffs of the idle ships, troops fired salutes, 
and long lines of sleighs drove through the streets of 
the cities with " Peace " on the hatbands of the drivers. 

Although the treaty of Ghent did not secure conces- 
sions from Great Britain, the War of 1812 accomplished 
much for the United States. It made Europe respect 
us, and taught us to respect ourselves, and prize more 
than ever the federal union. Only rest and time were 
needed to gather the forces of the nation together again. 
A vast surplus of agricultural products lay waiting to 
seek a foreign market. To protect the masts of the "Madison's 
merchantmen as they lay for years in the harbor, tar "'^ "^*^ 
barrels had been put over the top of each. These bar- 
rels were called "Madison's nightcaps" and, now that 
peace had come, thousands were down at the wharves to 
see Madison's night caps lifted as the ships sailed away 
in the dawn of prosperity. 

The public debt amounted to over a hundred million The public debt 
dollars, and it did not seem possible that such a large 
sum could ever be paid. Yet Alexander Dallas, sec- 
retary of the treasury, came forward, like a second 
Hamilton, to rescue the country from bankruptcy. A ^g ^ 

national bank was chartered for twenty years, and The second nationa 
located at Philadelphia to take the place of the one 
whose charter had come to an end five years before; 
tariffs were increased, direct taxes were levied, and other 
financial measures taken to relieve the indebtedness. 

The war taught the Americans that tLey could have American 
their own manufactories. When they saw raw materials '"^°"^*'='°"«s 
lying idle at the wharves, they began to wonder why 
they could not be manufactured at home. To encourage 
manufactures, prizes were offered in different States for 
knives and forks and the best-woven cloth. People 



208 



NATIONALITY 



i8i6 

A protective 
tariff for home 
industries 

James Monroe 
elected the fifth 
president 



began to wear homespun. A troop of cavalry appeared 
in white Virginia cloth. 

Several legislatures fixed the date on which members 
should appear in clothes of home manufacture. Of 
course there were^ some people who opposed this 
enthusiasm for home products. When Henry Clay 
moved in the Kentucky legislature that the members 
dress in homespun, a rival said he was only doing so to 
get votes, and this brought on a duel, in which both men 
were wounded But the agitation about home manufac- 
tures aroused interest everywhere. 

A strong feeling grew up that the struggling industries 
should be protected from foreign competition ; and when 
it was proposed to lay a protective tariff on some foreign 
goods, very few objected to it. New England objected 
the most to a tariff, because, at that time, she had few 
manufactories ; her greatest profits were in shipping 
goods from foreign ports to sell in the United States. 

The cotton States wished the domestic manufacture 
of cotton encouraged. It was a risk to send cotton on 
the seas, where war was so often waged between the 
European powers. The planters thought they might 
teach manufacturing to their slaves. They said it would 
be a fine thing to gather the white down from the fields, 
and spin it into cloth on the same plantation. And so a 
protective tariff was laid by Congress on certain foreign 
wares. 

When the administration of James Madison drew to 
a close, there was really but one party. The Fed- 
eralist leaders, who had opposed the war, had very few 
followers, and James Monroe, of Virginia, secretary of 
state, was elected the fifth president by the Democratic- 
Republicans. 



CHAPTER XXXI 



JAMES MONROE (FIFTH PRESIDENT, 1817-1825) 
DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN 

James Monroe inaugurated the "era of good feel- The- era ci 
ing. " When the president made a tour through New s°°'^ ^^^''"g " 
England, the old stronghold of Federalism, Federalists 
united with Democratic-Republicans to greet him. Chil- 
dren bore garlands of red and white roses before the 
president in token that party feuds were over, and 
flags and relics of the Revolution were brought 
out for display. President Monroe, who had 
fought with Washington, seemed to realize the 
return of the spirit of 't^; for he wore the almost 
forgotten cocked hat, blue coat, buff vest, long 
hose, and short clothes of an officer of the Revo- 
lution, and wherever he went, he made friends. 

By this time the Americans had changed greatly 
from the ruddy, placid English of colonial times. 
They were restless and nervous, and more slender than 
the British cousins who had come to give them battle. 

In New England, where the Anglo-Saxon type was Development of the 
purest, a nasal tone had crept into the voice ; fortu- 
nately, however, the "h's" had not kept pace with the 
mother country. 

Boston was still the largest city, but the New Eng- 
land villages had increased in number and size. Each 
had its meeting house, green common, and streets, 
lined with elms, stretching out between stone fences 
into farm lands. There were common schools in every 
hamlet, and the colleges of Harvard and Yale were 
famous even in Europe. 

i 2.09 




JAMES MONROE 
1757-1831 



National charac- 
teristics 



United States 



New England 



2IO 



NATIONALITY 



The Middle Stales 



The Southern States 



The planters 



The " poor whites' 
and the negroes 



The Southwest 

1802 
Georgia cedes 
western lands 

1812 
Louisiana admitted 



The Northwest 

Michigan Territory 

1S09 
Illinois Territory 

1816 
Indiana admitted 



In the Middle States there was a mixed population of' 
Germans. Dutch, Irish, Swiss, French, Swedes, Scotch, 
and English. The thrifty, industrious citizens owned 
farms lying close together, and voted and thought much 
alike. New York City was a commercial center, and, 
though Philadelphia was in advance in the arts and sci- 
ences, New York boasted of Columbia College. 

In the Southern States, the hospitable mansions were 
surrounded by vast plantations. The daughters of the 
rich were educated at home by a governess, and the sons 
who did not go to the William and Mary College gener- 
ally went abroad to study. 

High-bred, generous, and extravagant, the planters 
cultivated social graces, and were such leaders in the 
politics of the country that Virginia had earned the 
name of "Mother of Presidents." The " poor whites " 
still lived apart, loafing and quarreling, and the negro 
toiled in the fields of tobacco, cotton, and rice. 

These original thirteen colonies were much the same 
as when we studied them last, except that the Puritan 
was less stern and the cavalier less haughty; and a feel- 
ing of brotherhood had developed since the Revolution. 

A marvelous change, however, had taken place beyond 
the mountains. The cotton States had sent many set- 
tlers to the Mississippi Territory. When Georgia ceded 
her western lands to the government, they were added 
to that Territory. A few years later Louisiana was 
admitted into the Union as the eighteenth State. 

The immigration to the Northwest had been so great 
that the Territory of Michigan, and then that of Illinois, 
comprising Minnesota east of the Mississippi, Wiscon- 
sin, and Illinois, were organized from the Territory of 
Indiana, and Indiana was admitted into the Union. 

The War of 1 8 1 2 stimulated immigration from Europe. 



Monroe's administration 211 

When the British troops returned home, they had won- increased 
dcrful stories to tell of the opportunities in America for '"""'g^ation from 

* '■ Europe 

a man to become a freeholder. Farmers, mechanics, 
carpenters, weavers, masons, and blacksmiths turned 
their faces toward America. 

The demand for passage increased until rates were so 
high that only the well-to-do could afford to sail. Emi- 
gration became such a craze that sometimes a whole 
village with their curate embarked together. 

In one week fifteen hundred foreigners landed at 
American ports. They were largely from Great Britain, 
but many were from France, and a few were from Ger- 
many and Switzerland. Some could not get work, and 
returned home; but the most of the immigrants remained 
to help clear forests, dig canals, sow vast prairies in the 
West to grain, and build up new enterprises everywhere. 

Now each State on the coast had something which 
might be sold in the Western States. But many things 
needed in the West could be brought cheaper from 
Europe by way of the Mississippi than carried overland 
from the Eastern States, because of the bad roads. ^^ 

During the administration of Thomas JefTerson, Rob- Robert f-iI ton and 
ert Fulton had perfected a steamboat which made trans- 
portation by water very much cheaper and quicker. He 
called his boat the Clermoiit. Steamboats, fashioned 
after the Clermont, soon carried the products of the 
farms in the West down the Ohio and the Missis- 
sippi to New Orleans to be exchanged for the mer- 
chandise of Europe and th6 West Indies. These 
same steamboats were transporting immigrants to 
the West so rapidly that, before the people on the 
coast had recovered from their surprise that Ken- 
tucky, Tennessee, Ohio, Louisiana, and Indiana had rqbert fulton 
been admitted to the Union, Mississippi, Illinois, and 1705-1815 

Alabama were admitted. It was plain that, if the wall 




212 



NATIONALITY 



The admission of 

Mississippi (1817), 
Illinois (1818), and 
Alabama [1819) 

1806 
An appropriation 
for the national 
turnpike road 



1822 
Monroe vetoes a liill 
for internal 
improvements 



1817 

War with the 
Seminoles 



Andrew Jackson 
seizes forts in 
•A^est Florida 



of the Alleghanies continued to be a barrier to trade, the 
great growing West, with the Mississippi for a highway, 
and New Orleans for a seaport, would soon be not only 
commercially, but politically independent of the East. 

During the administration of Jefferson, Baltimore 
and Philadelphia had urged the National Pike, or Cum- 
berland Road, between Cumberland in Maryland and 
Wheeling in West Virginia. Congress appropriated sev- 
eral thousand dollars, received from the sale of lands in 
Ohio, to build the road. It became a magnificent turn- 
pike; its arches spanned rivers and ravines, and its 
smooth surface invited trade. 

Soon all the States were asking for government funds 
to improve their highways. When President Monroe 
vetoed an appropriation bill for improving the Cumber- 
land Road, because he thought the Constitution did not 
intend internal improvement at federal expense, the 
States took up the matter of public roads for themselves. 
Many turnpikes were built to be paid for by toll, col- 
lected at gates. These roads, by increasing interstate 
commerce, helped to strengthen the Union. 

Meanwhile the Creek and Seminole Indians, in West 
Florida, became hostile. Andrew Jackson, the "big 
knife " of Tennessee, marched into West Florida, and 
subdued them with a thousand riflemen. West Florida 
had long been the nest of pirates and desperadoes, who 
terrorized our Southern border. Determined to protect 
the frontier, if Spain would not, Jackson seized St. 
Marks and Pensacola, placed garrisons there, and hanged 
two English spies. His vigorous measures might have 
brought on war with Spain and England. Resolutions, 
offered in Congress, to censure him were defeated by a 
large majority; but the American garrisons were removed 
from the forts. 



MONROES ADMINISTRATION 213 

1819 
Spain saw very well that it would be impossible to The purchass of 

keep the Floridas, ' and sold them that same year to the f^^^ s°plir 

United States for five million dollars. East and West 

Florida were organized as one province, with Andrew 

Jackson as territorial governor. The acquisition assured 

control of the Seminole Indians, and, by giving command 

of the Gulf of Mexico protected the Mississippi from 

foreign powers. ^g^g 

Meantime the Canadian boundary was agreed upon The Canadian 

.., -r^ 1 JO T^i !••• J1 Ji.!. T boundary line along 

With England. The division was declared to be a line ,j,g forty-ninth 
extending south from the northwestern point of the Lake parallel 
of the Woods to the forty-ninth parallel of north lati- 
tude and along that parallel to the ridge of the Rocky 
Mountains; and it was further agreed that for ten years 
the United States and England should hold joint occu- 
pation of Oregon. 



CHAPTER XXXII 

JAMES MONROE (1817-1825) (Continued^ 
DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN 

The administration of President Monroe was in such james Monroe 
high f^vor that he was re-elected with only one vote ^«-«'-<^'-'' "resident 
against him, and that is said to have been cast in order 
that Washington might still stand in history as the only 
president who received a unanimous vote. But even 
before his re-election trouble was brewing in President 
Monroe's "happy family." 



^ See map of territorial growth. 
* See map of territorial growth. 



214 



NATIONALITY 



Maine and Missouri, 
candidates for 
admission to 
the Union 



Shall slavery be 
allowed in the 
territory purchased 
from France ? 



Maine, which had been a part of Massachusetts since 
early colonial times, separated from that State, and asked 
to be admitted into the Union. There could be no 
question about her right to be there. But just at the 
same time Missouri, from beyond the Mississippi, asked 
admission. 

Now, as we have seen, slavery was forever prohibited 
from the territory north of the Ohio, by an act of the 
Continental Congress. Should slavery also be excluded 
from the territory west of the Mississippi .'' Missouri 
asked to be admitted as a slave State, and Congress 
requested her to stand on the threshold of the Capitol 
while her credentials were examined. This made her 
friends, the slaveholding States, very angry ; and they 
refused to admit Maine without Missouri. All the thir- 
teen colonies once held slaves, but the Northern and 
Middle States employed them largely about the house, 
and they had become less and less in demand until there 
were very few north of Virginia and Maryland. The 
Southern States, however, on account of the cotton gin, 
which made the production of cotton so profitable, had 
increased their number of slaves. 

The States formed from the Northwest Territory were 
free under the provisions of the Ordinance of 1787. But 
when the first emigrants from the South moved into 
Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, and Mississippi, they 
took their slaves with them, and these States lying south 
of the Ohio River entered the Union as slave States. 
Louisiana had been a slave State under Spanish rule, and 
was admitted as such. 

Thus it came about that when Maine and Missouri 
asked admittance to the Union, there were eleven free 
and eleven slave States. The North claimed that while 
Congress had no authority on the slavery question in the 



MONROE S ADMINISTRATION 



215 



States already organized at the time of the federal 

union, it had full powers in a Territory, and might admit 

it free ; the South claimed that a Territory had the right 

to decide for itself whether it should be a free or a slave 

State. 

1820 
At length, Henry Clay succeeded in passing the Mis- The Missouri 

souri Compromise bill, admitting Missouri as a slave °"^'°|"82^, 
State, but prohibiting slavery in the rest of the Louisi- Missouri admitted 
ana Purchase north of parallel 36^ 30', or the western '"*°' *j82o" 
extension of the southern boundary line of Missouri. Maine admitted 
Meanwhile Maine had been admitted. There were 
just twelve slave and twelve free States. And so 
the dispute about slavery was put to rest for a 
time. 

Now, one reason that Spain consented so eas- 
ily to sell the Floridas to the United States was 
the trouble she was having with her colonies- 
While Spain was busy at war with France, 
the Spanish colonies of Mexico and South 
America which had been developing since the 
time of Columbus, plunged into revolutions. 
They set up republics, and President Monroe ac- 
knowledged their governments. The Spanish colonies 
were still in open rebellion when Russia, Prussia, and acknowledges the 
Austria united in a " Holy Alliance " to maintain despo- independence of the 

Spanish colonies of 

tism in Europe. The kingdoms of Europe had been south America 
unstable since the American and French revolutions. '^'5 

The " Holy 

The French republic had fallen, and a Bourbon was Alliance- 
seated on the throne again; but the republic of the 
United States was firmly established. Her example was 
bad enough, and if the Mexicans and South Americans 
prospered as republics, there was no knowing what 
effect it might have on the people of Europe. 

It was believed in the United States that if Spain 




HENRY CLAY 
1777-1852 

1822 
President Monroe 



2l6 



NATIONALITY 



1823 
" The Monroe 
Doctrine " 



England supports 
the doctrine 



1824 
Russia's 
agreement 



The policy of the 
United States 
is consistent 



could not subdue her American provinces, the Holy 
Alliance had pledged to send over armies to assist her. 
President Monroe determined to prevent this, and to 
take a firm stand against the colonization of European 
governments in the two Americas. The emperor of 
Russia had already planted one colony in California, and 
if such colonization were allowed to continue, the 
United States might be hemmed in from the Pacific 
Ocean. 

Monroe was well acquainted with European affairs. 
He consulted Thomas Jefferson, John Adams, and James 
Madison, all famous diplomats. He talked with William 
Wirt, the attorney-general, and John Quincy Adams, the 
secretary of state. Then he wrote a message to Con- 
gress which all Europe would read, and which has 
become famous as the "Monroe Doctrine." He said 
the United States were resolved not to meddle with 
the affairs of the nations of Europe, and that we would 
consider an attempt on the part of those nations to 
extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as 
dangerous to our peace and safety; and that the two 
American continents, by the free and independent con- 
dition which they had assumed and maintained, should 
henceforth not be considered as subjects for future 
colonization by any European powers.' 

Monroe's remonstrance had its effect. Great Britain 
supported the policy of the United States for reasons of 
her own. The allied powers did not interfere in South 
American affairs, and the following year Russia agreed 
not to colonize on the Pacific coast south of 54° 40'. 

The attitude of the United States at this time was 
consistent. While demanding that Europe should not 
interfere with American affairs, our government refused 
to meddle with the balance of power in Europe. And 



MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 2 1/ 

when Greece was struggling with Turkey for freedom, 
Congress voted down the resolutions to recognize her 
independence, in spite of the eloquent appeals in her 
behalf by Daniel Webster and Henry Clay. 

During Monroe's administration, the White House was 
repaired, and the Capitol at Washington rebuilt. Hand- 
some chambers were set apart for the Senate, the 
House of Representatives, and the Supreme Court. 

The upper house of Congress was always increasing The departments 
with the admission of new States; the lower house was °f '^e government 
becoming larger with the growth of population, and its 
members were always changing to suit the views of the 
people. The number of justices had increased to seven. 
On the supreme bench sat Chief Justice Marshall, the 
"interpreter of the Constitution," and his associates in 
long black silk gowns, while such famous lawyers as 
Thomas Pinckney, William Wirt, Henry Clay, and 
Daniel Webster argued questions of national law before 

^^^"^- . i8i8 

Pensions granted by Congress to survivors of the Pensions for the 
Revolutionary war revived thoughts of the war of Revolution '*'*' 
Independence. Trumbull's painting of the Declaration 
of Independence, exhibited in the different cities, 
increased the reverence for the founders of our Repub- „ 

lie, and the arrival of General Lafayette aroused the General Lafayette 
spirit of patriotism to the highest pitch. visits America 

The "boy" of the Revolution was now almost 
seventy years old, and still limping a little from the 
wound, it was said, which he had received at Brandy- 
wine. The distinguished nobleman was moved to tears 
when he saw in the United States the fulfilment of his 
hopes. He had seen the republic of France established 
only to be betrayed by the ambition of Napoleon. But 
he had seen Washington, Adams, Jefferson, and Madi- 



2l8 



NATIONALITY 



1825 

Laying the corner 
stone of the Bunker 
Hill monument 



son preside with dignity at the head of a republic, and 
step down among the ranks of the people to cast votes 
for other candidates. 

Even as he rolled along the turnpike road in a car- 
riage with the president, he was astonished to see him 
pay toll like any common citizen. And when he sailed 
up the Mississippi and the Ohio, and saw the cities along 
their banks teeming with prosperous and contented 
people, his admiration knew no bounds. 

Lafayette laid the corner-stone 
of the national monument at 
Bunker Hill, where the sons of the 
Puritans and the Cavaliers gath- 
ered to do honor to those who had 
fallen for hberty, and when he 
returned to France, it was in the 
good ship Brandywine. The hos- 
pitality extended to this guest of 
the nation had been so generous 
that a new word was coined, and 
whenever unusual honors were 
paid to a person, he was said to 
have been " Lafayetted. " 

Meantime the national elections 
had taken place. There had been 
many candidates. New England 
nominated John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts; the 
South, John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina; the West 
brought forward two favorites, Andrew Jackson, of Ten- 
nessee, and Henry Clay, of Kentucky; and a caucus of 
Congressmen at Washington, which was the old method 
of nomination, named William H. Crawford, of Geor- 
gia. At the election Jackson and Adams received the 
highest number of highest number of electoral votes, with Crawford third in 

electoral votes 

the list. 




JACKSON ^^ADAMS ^~~]^CRAWfOI>D^^UAr 



ELECTION OF 1824 



Andrew Jackson 
and John Quincy 
Adams receive the 



MONROE S ADMINISTRATION 



219 



According to the twelfth amendment to the Constitu- The House of 
tion, if the electors do not give a majority of votes to fh7ose7Adamr 
any candidate, the three highest names for president are for president 
submitted to the House of Representatives, and the two 
highest for vice-president to the Senate. The House 
chose John Quincy Adams for president. As John C. 
Calhoun, of South Carolina, had become the candidate 
of all factions for vice-president, he was elected with- 
out appeal to the Senate. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS (SIXTH PRESIDENT, 1825-1829) 
NATIONAL-REPUBLICAN. 



1826 



Within a year after the departure of Lafayette, gloom ^^^^^ °f Jefferson 

1 f • 1 • f -i-> 11- ''"'^ Adams 

spread over the fair skies of our Republic. 

On the fourth of July, just fifty years after the 
Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson, 
its author, and John Adams, its defender, died. 
The two men, like the two parties they repre- 
sented, had once been bitter enemies, but, like 
their parties, they had long been friends. 

About the time of their death, the "era 
of good feeling" came to an end. The 
Dem.ocratic-Republicans insisted on a strict 
construction of the Constitution, which they 
claimed would not allow the national government 
to make internal improvements or foster private com- 
mercial interests.^ .0 . 

1525 

Now the State of New York had just completed the The Erie canai 
Erie canal; — "Clinton's ditch," it had been called for """"p^'^"* 




JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 
1767-1848 



^Read Johnston's " American Politics." 



220 



NATIONALITY 



improvements 



several years, because Governor De Witt Clinton had 
been the prime mover in its construction. The success 
of this canal, joining the lakes to the Hudson, and thus 
to the sea, was unexpected. Cost of transportation was 
reduced wonderfully. To haul a barrel of flour from 
Albany to Buffalo had once cost ten dollars. After 
the canal was built, the transport of a barrel of flour 
cost thirty cents. Trade with the Ohio valley, through 
Lake Erie, increased. Immigration poured into western 
New York, until within two years the State ranked 
first in population. 

The fame of the Erie Canal aroused a greater desire 
The craze for internal than cvcr to bulM roads to thc West, to spau rivers with 
bridges, and to dig canals and improve harbors, so that 
the people of the United States might be drawn more 
closely together.^ 

President John Quincy Adams" and Henry Clay, his 
secretary of state, gave a liberal construction to the 
Constitution, and urged that Congress had the right to 
make appropriations for national improvements, and to 
lay high tariffs on imported goods as a protection to our 
manufacturing interests. 

A new party was soon formed by the administration, 
called the National Republicans. The National Repub- 
licans urged appropriations by Congress for internal im- 
provements. The Democratic-Republicans ^ argued that 
such improvements belonged to private enterprises and 
individual States. The Nationalists insisted on a high 
tariff; the Democrats demanded a light tariff for revenue 
only. 

The difference between the two parties on the ques- 



The National 
Republicans versus 
the Democratic- 
Republicans 



iRead Schurz's "Life of Henry Clay." 

2 Read Morse's J. Q. Adams." 

3 Read Sumner's "Andrew Jackson." 



ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION 221 

tion of the tarift was largely sectional. At the close of 
the War of 1812 New England opposed a protective 
tariff on imported goods because it would injure her 
carrying trade; and the Southern States favored such a 
tariff because they hoped to establish mills on their 
plantations, where the negroes, who picked the cotton, 
might make it into cloth. 

But a change of sentiment had taken place in the two The tariff question 
sections on the tariff question. After the armies of 
Europe disbanded, the carrying trade of New England 
became less profitable; and the immigration of expert 
mechanics and weavers increased the interest in home 
manufactures. Wherever large mills were set up, they 
became the center for manufacturing towns. Farmers' 
daughters who had been educated in the public schools 
were largely employed, and thrift and intelligence made 
manufacturing very profitable in New England and the 
Middle States. 

Meanwhile the South had found that the slaves pos- 
sessed neither the skill nor the patience to become 
operatives in the mills. And so when the manufacturers 
of the North asked that high tariffs be laid on foreign 
importations to protect struggling industries, the plant- 
ers of the South were in no humor to grant them. The 
West was divided on the tariff issue; yet Henry Clay, of 
Kentucky, was a host in himself, and, in the end, a very 
high protective tariff, called by its enemies the "tariff rhe ■• tariff of 
of abominations," was placed upon cotton and woolen »''°'°'"^"°"*' 
goods and some other articles. This tariff brought 
money into the treasury so fast that the national debt 
was diminished at the rate of millions of dollars a year. 
Then, true to the policy of the National party. Congress 
expended large sums of the tariff revenue on roads, 
canals, harbors, and other internal improvements. 



222 



NATIONALITY 



The bitterness of 
party feeling 



Andrew Jackson 



Growth of the West 



The feeling between the North and the South became 
more and more bitter. It was whispered in Charleston 
that it might be necessary to secede from the Union. 
When the close of Adams's first term drew near, the 
Democrats chose Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, for 
byt7Democ'at'!'"' presidcnt. The tariff question had some weight in this 
choice, but the geographical location of the candidate 
had much more to do with it. The West, which now 
sent senators and representatives to Congress from nine 
States, demanded recognition. 

While the North and the South had been growing far- 
ther and farther apart politically, the States beyond the 
mountains were becoming more powerful. Towns were 
multiplying. Cincinnati, in thirty years, had grown to be 
a city of thirty thousand inhabitants. Cleveland, Indian- 
apolis, and other towns north of the Ohio were develop- 
ing. Chicago was only a village about the walls of Fort 
Dearborn, where there were more Pottawatomies than 
white settlers, but it was the center of 
supplies from the lakes, and promised 
much. St. Louis, with its French and 
Spanish population, had been invaded 
by American settlers, who were rear- 
ing warehouses, and establishing a vast 
trade on the Mississippi. Patches of 
grain in the clearings had grown into 
large farms ; herds and flocks fed on 
the prairies, and the steamers and flat- 
boats that plied on the lakes and riv- 
ers were busy with traffic from morn- 
ing till night. This boastful, pushing 
West would be a powerful champion 
for the party which might succeed in 
winning its support. And so the Dem- 




ELECTION OF 1828 



ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 



223 



ocrats chose Andrew Jackson from beyond the moun- 
tains. 

Jackson's personal popularity was great. He was a 
"man of the people." The presidents, from Washing- 
ton to John Quincy Adams, had been '* aristocrats." 
The rough frontiersman, who had vanquished the In- 
dians, humbled the British, and defied the Spaniards, 
was a plain, blunt commoner. Besides he had received 
more electoral votes than Adams at the preceding elec- 
tion, and when the House chose Adams, the people felt 
that their will had been thwarted ; so they elected 
him president, with John C. Calhoun vice-president, for 
a second term. 



An dre w J ackson 
elected president 



CHAPTER XXXIV 



ANDREW JACKSON (SEVENTH PRESIDENT, 1829-1837) 
DEMOCRATIC 

The Ship of State, under Andrew Jackson, was 
launched on a smiling sea. There was a surplus in the 
treasury, and the majority in both houses belonged 
to the party of the executive. It was an oppor- 
tunity not to be despised by any president who 
had ideas of his own to carry out. Jackson, had 
ideas of his own. More than six thousand post- 
masters, revenue collectors, department clerks, 
and other federal employees were removed the 
first year, to make place for his political friends. 

This method of " rotation in office " established 
by Jackson, was adopted by succeeding presidents. 
Public offices came to be looked upon as rewards for 
partisan services. From the remark of a politician that 




ANDREW JACKSON, 

1767-1845 

'Rotation in office' 



224 NATIONALITY 

The "spoils system" " to the victoFS bclong the spoils, " this system of dis- 
tributing offices has been called the "spoils system." 

The United States Jackson began immediately to make war upon the 

national bank. He denounced it as unconstitutional, 
and insisted that State banks should transact the busi- 
ness of the country. 

The free trade partisans were encouraged to attack 
the "tariff of abominations" more vigorously than ever. 

Robert Hayne In a tariff debate in Congress, Robert Hayne, an elo- 

arguesforthe ^^^^ scuator from South Carolina, declared "that the 

theory of nulnncation t 

United States government was only a compact between 
the States, and that a State might nullify, or declare 
null and void, any act of Congress which its own 
legislature decided was unconstitutional. 
Daniel Webster Scnator Haync's argument for nullification was an- 

lepiies to Robert gwercd by Scuator Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, in 

Hayne ■' 

one of the most remarkable speeches in the English 
language. It has been said that no single utterance in 
our history has done so much to strengthen the love of 
nationality.^ 

Webster maintained that the Continental Congress 
had been a compact between the States; but the Ihiited 
States was a government of the people, by the people, 
for the people. To protect itself from any unconstitu- 
tional laws "the whole people " had organized a supreme 
court as the sole tribunal to decide in cases of dispute 
between the federal government and the States. A 
State, being only a part of the United States, had no 
right to prevent the execution of a law of the United 
States; and he declared that any resistance to the 
federal laws by a part of the people was treason 
and rebellion. 



* Read Lodge's " Daniel Webster." 



JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION 



225 



1832 



Then, later, in answer to the argument of John C. Cal- John c. Caihoun 



houn for secession from the Union, Webster said there 
could be no secession. In a republic there must be 
either obedience to the laws, or a revolution by the 
majority of the people to set up a different govern 
ment. These discussions in Congress set people 
to thinking, and newspapers and conventions be- 
gan to talk of "State sovereignty." 

It was feared in the North that Jackson might 
favor secession, but when some members of 
Congress gave him a banquet on Jefferson's 
birthday, and proposed toasts which hinted 
at secession, the president arose and offered 
the toast: " Our Federal Union, — it ninst be 
preserved." He disliked the high tariff as much 
as Calhoun himself, but was determined to enforce 
it so long as it remained a law. He saw very clearly 



argues for the theory 
of secession 




DANIEL WEBSTER 
1782-1852 



1830 



that if each State were allowed to be the judge of the -.^our^FedeTaT 
laws passed by Congress, there would soon be no Union Union, it ;«?«/ be 

preserved " 

at all. 

For the next presidential nominations each political 18-1-18^2 
party chose delegates to meet in national conventions to The national 
choose their candidates, instead of leaving the nomina- 
tions to caucuses in Congress. A ' ' national assembly of 
young men," supporting Henry Clay, the candidate of 
the Nationalists, wrote out a party platform or declara- 
tion of principles; and thus the people understood better 
than ever before the great questions at issue between the 
parties. These, as we have seen, were the tariff for 
protection, the national bank, and internal improvement 
at the expense of the government. 

The Nationalists nominated Henry Clay for president. 
The Democrats were so united on Jackson that they 
did not formally nominate him; but named Martin Van 
IS 



conventions 



1832 

The first party 
platform (May) 



226 



NATIONALITY 



President Jackson 
re-elected 

South Carolina 
forbids the collection 
of federal revenue 



Jackson sends a 
man-of-war to 
Charleston 



1833. 
The compromise 
tariff becomes a law 



1832 
Jackson vetoes the 
National Cank bill 



183a 
Removal of deposits 
from the national 
bank 



Buren for vice-president. Jackson and Van Buren were 
elected. 

A convention in South Carolina now declared the high 
tariff null and without force, and forbade the collection 
of the federal revenues within the borders of South 
Carolina. Senator Hayne became governor of the State, 
and Calhoun resigned the vice-presidency before the in- 
auguration of his successor, to defend in the Senate the 
doctrines of his State. Then the South Carolina legis- 
lature met, and passed laws to enforce an ordinance of 
nulHfication by the State militia, if necessary. 

President Jackson was swift to act. He sent a naval 
force immediately to Charleston to assist in the collec- 
tion of the federal revenues, and declared he would use 
the army to compel the State to loyalty. This had a 
marked effect on the leaders of nullification, and they 
allowed the taxes to be collected. Then through the 
efforts of Henry Clay, a compromise tariff bill was 
passed, which gradually reduced the tariff, and, for a 
time, the danger of disunion was over. 

The National party's support of the national bank 
was so powerful that near the close of Jackson's first 
term. Congress passed a bill to recharter the bank when 
its old charter expired. President Jackson exercised his 
power of veto. There was not a vote of two thirds in 
Congress to pass the bill over the veto, and it failed to 
become a law. 

Jackson removed ten millions of dollars from the 
national bank before the charter had expired. This 
act was declared unconstitutional by the Nationalists, 
and caused a bitter debate. A resolution to censure the 
president passed the Senate; but four years later this 
was expunged from the record through the influence of 
Thomas H. Benton, of Missouri.^ 



» Read Roosevelt's "Life of Thomas H. Benton " 



JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 



227 



call themselves 
Whigs 



Nothing that was said made the least impression on 
the fearless Jackson; he gradually drew out all the fed- 
eral money, and deposited it in State banks. He vetoed 
so many bills for internal improvements and other meas- 
ures that the National party began to call themselves The Nationalists 
"Whigs," opposing the tyranny of "King Andrew," as 
the Whigs of the time of King George III had done. 
"I have been educated from my cradle in the principles 
of the Whigs of 'y^,'' said Daniel Webster. Henry 
Clay, of Kentucky; Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts; 
William H. Seward and Thurlow Weed, of New 
York, and William Henry Harrison, of Ohio, 
were the leaders of the Whigs. 

The chasm between the North and the South 
was widening every year on account of the sla- 
very question. In the free States of the North, 
where the negro was permitted to earn his own 
living, the race feeling was strong; he was sel- 
dom encouraged to better his condition. A 
school opened in Connecticut to educate col- 
ored children was forced to close its doors. No 
colored man dared sit in the church pews of a white 
congregation. 

William Lloyd Garrison, the obscure editor of the wiiiiam uoyd 
Liberator, wrote fiery articles against the inequality of *"'^°"'° 
the white and black races in the North, and advocated 
the immediate and unconditional emancipation of every 
slave held in the United States. 

A few months afterward, Nat Turner, a negro of NatTumer-s 
Virginia, banded his clans together, and, at an eclipse vilgiS''"" '" 
of the sun, fell upon the scattered plantations to massa- 
cre the whites. Before their work could be stopped, 
sixty-one men, women, and children were killed. The 
South claimed that Garrison had incited the slaves to 
war. The North accused him of stirring up sectional 




W. L. GARRISON 

1805-1879 



1831 



228 



NATIONALITY 



Abolition societies 



1834 
Great Britain 
emancipates her 
slaves in the 
West Indies 



John Quincy Adams 
opposes the " gag 
rule " in Congress 



Jackson orders the 
public funds to be 
placed in State 
banks 



strife. Mobs destroyed the printing press of the Libera- 
tor, and nearly hanged the young editor himself. But 
the influence of Garrison spread. Abolition societies 
were formed all over the North. Their meetings were 
frequently broken up by angry citizens, who said the 
' ' madmen " would destroy the Union unless they were 
silenced. 

Meantime the British Parliament set seven hundred 
thousand slaves free in the British West Indies. With 
liberated negroes so near our own coast, the South was 
more fearful than ever of slave insurrections. But the 
Abolitionists continued to meet in conventions. They 
sent so many petitions against slavery to Congress that 
the ' ' gag rule " was passed, that papers relating to 
slavery should be laid on the table. 

Ex-President John Quincy Adams headed in Congress 
the opposition to this rule. Through him so many 
petitions were presented and laid on the table that 
people began to question a rule which did not allow a 
hearing before Congress. "Could the United States be 
a free government and refuse the right of petitions.?" 
they asked. Yet it was a long time before the "gag 
rule " was repealed. 

During the last years of President Jackson's adminis- 
tration, there seemed to be wonderful prosperity in the 
country. After he had removed the public funds from 
the United States bank, and deposited them in several 
State banks, selected by the secretary of the treasury, 
the depositories began to make loans. 
^\ inn^Snri ^ spirit of speculation arose. 

Other State banks or- 
ganized, and issued 
notes. 

As money was 

FIRST RAILWAY TRAIN WITH LOCOMOTIVE 




JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION 



229 



easy to get, manufactories, steamboat lines, and canals a period of 
were built. Towns "boomed" as new centers of ^'■"^p""^ 
trade. Steam, produced by burning coal instead of 
wood, seemed as wonderful then as electricity does to- 
day. Railways were taking the place of the Erie „ 
canal boats. A historian of the day says: "The most The first railway 
curious thing at Baltimore is what is called a rail- "" ^' ^ "°*°'^^ 
road. This consists of iron bars laid along the ground, 
and made fast, so that carriages with small wheels may 




FIRST REAPER 



Ericsson's screw 



run along upon them. You will mount a car something 
like a stage, and then you will be drawn along by two 
horses at the rate of twelve miles an hour. "^ It was 
not long till the locomotive took the place of horses. 
John Ericsson's screw propeller promised to do away 
with the paddles of the steamboats that were plying back p^°p!"" ^"^ other 

^ r J o new inventions 

and forth from Europe in fourteen and a half days. 
Walter Hunt invented the lock-stitch sewing machine, 
and Fairbanks invented the platform scales; edge tools 
began to be designed; thrashing machines were improved; 
McCormick's reaper was patented; indeed, there were 



^Goodrich's "First Book of History" {1834). 



230 



NATIONALITY 



1836 

The patent office 
bureau 



Newspapers 




SO many new inventions evolved from the busy brains 
of the Americans that the patent office was made a 
separate bureau under the department of the secretary 
of state. 

All these labor-saving machines gave farmers and 
mechanics more time to read, and so the era of the 
newspaper dawned. The New York Sioi and the 
Herald sold at a penny apiece, and began to 
be the guides to public thought. 
Poe, Bryant, and Whittier, the poets; Ban- 
croft, and Prescott, the historians; Cooper, 
Hawthorne, Irving, and other American 



CYRUS H. McCOR 
1809-1884 




American authors 



Artists, orators, 
and jurists 



writers, began to be read in the humblest homes; 
and Noah Webster's Dictionary, which, besides the 
good old English words, contained many new words 
coined in America, helped them to be read aright. 
Audubon, the ornithologist, challenged the admiration 
even of Europe by his illustrated treatise on "The 
Birds of America." The paintings of Benjamin West, 
Gilbert Stuart, John Trumbull, and other eminent 
American artists hung on the walls of the academies 
of Europe. Daniel Webster, Henry Clay, and John C. 
Calhoun, the orators; John Marshall, Joseph Story, and 




(I807-1S92) 





('794-1378; 




^lSo9 



-1^49) 



(1796-1859) 




('783-1 



^59) 





('804-1864) 

DISTINGUISHED WRITERS OF JACKSON'S TIME 

John Greenleaf Whittier. Wiu.iam Cullen Bryant. 

Edgar Allen Poe. William Hickling Prescott. Washington Irving. 

John James Audubon, Nathaniel Hawthorne. 

231 



232 



NATIONALITY 




JOHN MARSHALL 

1755-1835 



1832 
The Black 
Hawk war 

1834 
Indian Territory 
set apart for the 
red men 

1835 
The Seminole war 

Foreign affairs 



1836 
Arkansas and 

1837 
Michigan admitted 
to the Union 



James Kent, the jurists, had won international reputa- 
tions. ' All this advancement In science, letters, and 
the arts caused much comment during Jackson's 
administration. 

He who had fought the Indians settled the 
Indian question with several tribes. When the 
Sacs, Foxes, and Winnebagoes, of Wisconsin 
Territory, led by Black Hawk, refused to give 
possession to lands they had sold, he sent fed- 
eral troops to assist the Illinois militia in 
driving them beyond the Mississippi; after 
the Cherokees sold their lands in Georgia, he 
removed them to the Indian Territory, and 
when the Seminoles in Florida, led by Osceola, 
began to massacre the whites, his measures were so rigor- 
ous that they afterward removed to Indian Territory. 

Finding that France would not consent to pay the 
five million dollars promised as indemnity for injury to 
our commerce during her wars, he advised Congress to 
take instant reprisals on French mer- 
chantmen. France hastened to pay 
her debt, and other nations followed 
her example. 

Arkansas, a slave State, and Michi- 
gan, a free State, were admitted, un- 
der the Missouri Compromise, without 
a word of dispute. In fact, the whole 
machinery connected with a flourish- 
ing republic was said to be moving 
along with oiled joints as the adminis- 
tration of Andrew Jackson drew to a close. Jackson 
declared in his farewell address: "I leave this great 
people prosperous and happy. " 




EARLY PRINTING PRESS 



' Read Schouler's " History of the United States," V'^ol. IV. 



CHAPTER XXXV 



MARTIN VAN BUREN (EIGHTH PRESIDENT, 1837-1341) 
DEMOCRATIC 

The sun of prosperity, which sent its beams over the 
last days of Andrew Jackson's administration, was a 
setting sun for that of Martin Van Buren, his successor. 

Banks, estabhshed all over the country, had issued " wud-cat " banks 
paper they could not redeem with gold or silver. Jack- 
son himself had become distrustful of the banks' 
paper, and ordered government land agents to 
receive payment for land in gold or silver. 
This had caused an unusual demand for 
specie. The western banks drew gold and 
silver from the eastern banks to meet the de- 
mand. This weakened the eastern banks so 
that many suspended specie payment, which 
brought on a panic. Mortgages were fore- 
closed and factories and mills shut down. 
Thousands of men were witHbut homes and 

MARTIN VAN BUREN 

Without work. Prices 01 farm products fell to al- 1782-1862 

most nothing, and provisions were stored for a better coiiapse of the 
market. "''°°'"" 

The poor cried: "Down with monopolies!" They 
could not realize that the great corporations which had 
undertaken to build railroads, canals, and manufactories 
were the worst off of all. Mechanics began to form Protective 
protective associations. There were strikes in the manu- 
facturing towns, and the militia in New York City was strikes 
called out to quell a mob which had broken open ware- Riots 
houses, and scattered some hoarded flour through the 
streets. 

[233] 




associations 



234 



NATIONALITY 



The distrib\ition of 
the surplus among 
the States 



1837 
The fourth 
instalment of the 
surplus not paid 
when due 

(October 1) 



A special session of 
Congress 

United States 
treasury notes 
Issued 



The subtreasurles 



1840 
A bill for the 
subtreasury is passed 



William Henry 
Harrison nominated 
by the Whigs 



States suffered. Several State legislatures had bor- 
rowed money in Europe for public improvements, and 
could not even pay the interest on their debts. The 
United States suffered. During Jackson's administra- 
tion, Congress had agreed to distribute a surplus of over 
thirty-seven million dollars among the States, to be 
paid in four instalments. Three payments had been 
made; but now that the fourth payment was due, the 
government was unable to meet its pledges because its 
depositories had closed their doors. And so we may well 
call the panic of 1837 the greatest in our history, because 
both State and federal governments were as bankrupt 
as any citizen. 

President Van Buren, the "Little Magician," called 
a special session of Congress to consider what might 
best be done. It was decided to issue United States 
treasury notes to the amount of ten million dollars. This 
issue again put the government in debt; but it helped 
somewhat to restore confidence. The Whigs urged tjieir 
favorite national bank bill, but Van Buren would not 
listen to such a plan. He proposed the subtreasury 
system, now in use, by which the United States pos- 
sessed a treasury of their own. The public revenues 
were to be collected by four "receivers general," who 
gave bonds to make good all sums so collected, and pay 
the money, on demand, to the United States govern- 
ment. The chief deposit of the revenues was in a 
treasury at Washington, with smaller treasuries, or sub- 
treasuries, at St, Louis, Charleston, New York, and 
Boston. 

After the first results of the panic passed away, busi- 
ness became better. Railroad building recommenced, 
and factories started their wheels again. But financial 
troubles had so injured the party in power, that the 



VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION 



235 



Whigs had hopes of electing their candidates. They 
nominated in convention William Henry Harrison, of 
Ohio, president and John 
Tyler, of Virginia, vice-president. 
The Democrats renominated Van 
Buren, but put no vice-president 
in the field. The campaign 
was one of the most notable 
in our history. The Whig news- 
papers waged a bitter war of words. 
Clay and Webster laid aside their 
own ambitions, and spoke to thou- 
sands in open-air meetings, or 
marched in long processions 
among log cabins, coon skins, 
cider barrels, and other emblems 
of the humble life on the frontier 
where Harrison lived. And thus 
it was that the Whigs, who were 
called the aristocrats, seated the plain hero of Tippe- 
canoe in the White House. 




ELECTION OF 1840 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON AND JOHN TYLER 

(NINTH AND TENTH PRESIDENTS, 1841-1845) 

WHIG 

With Daniel Webster as secretary of state, there Daniel webster, 
seemed every reason that the new Whig administration s'^^^'^t of state 
would be popular; but President Harrison died one Death of President 
month after his inauguration. 



Harrison 



236 



NATIONALITY 



Tyler vetoes the 
National Bank bill 



The northeast 
bou .dary dispute 

1842 
The Webster- 
Ashburton treaty 





JOHN TYLER 
1790-1862 



Vice-President Tyler became president. All the mem- 
bers of the old cabinet soon resigned save Daniel Web- 
ster, who, at the time, was busily engaged in "foreign 
affairs. The chief cause of the rupture 
tween Tyler and the cabinet was his vetc 
of the bill to recharter the bank of th( 
United States. 

Webster felt that he must complete 
negotiations already begun between the 
United States and Great Britain. 
During Van Buren's administration, 
Canada had attempted a revolution^ 
against the mother country. Our bor- ^,^^,^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^,^^^ 
der States sympathized with the Cana- 1773-1841 

dians, and Great Britain was irritated because some of 
their citizens had lent them aid. There were disputes 
about the fisheries, and the northeast boundary line 
of Maine which had not been determined by the treaty 
of 1783. Daniel Webster displayed signal ability 
in adjusting the boundary line with Lord Ashburton, the 
British minister. After the Ashburton treaty was 
ratified by both governments, he also resigned 
from the cabinet, and President Tyler soon ap- 
pointed as secretary of state John C. Calhoun 
the ardent advocate of State sovereignty. 

Now, the annexation of Texas was much de- 
sired by the South. While Texas was still one 
of the provinces of the republic of Mexico, Amer- 
icans had been encouraged to settle there. 
The cheap land and fine climate attracted 
immigration until, in a few years, twenty thous- 
and Americans were citizens. When- Santa Anna 
became president of Mexico, Texas insisted on being 
independent. Santa Anna invaded the territory to com- 



TYLER S ADMINISTRATION 



237 



1836 
Samuel Houston 
at the battle of 
San Jacinto 



pel submission. He was defeated by General Samuel 
Houston, of Tennessee, at the battle of San Jacinto. 
A few months later, Houston was made president of 
Texas, and the following year the United States, Great 
Britain, and France acknowledged the independence of 
the new republic. 

Texas soon asked to be added to the United States, Texas asks to b 
and her cause was eagerly espoused by the States along ^he'^ution"'" 
the gulf. President Tyler made a secret treaty with the 
Texan authorities to admit the republic as a State. The 
Senate rejected the treaty on the ground that it would 
bring on war with Mexico. The question of annexation 
continued to be agitated by the slaveholding States. 
When Florida should be admitted, all the territory south 
of the Missouri Compromise line 
would be formed into States; but 
the territory north would still fur- 
nish several free States. Texas 
might be divided into five common- 
wealths as large as Pennsylvania. 
Its climate was genial. Its soil was 
fertile. It was the ideal spot for 
the extension of the slavery system. 

This one subject of the annexa- 
tion of Texas occupied the minds of 
the politicians at the national con- 
ventions. The Whigs nominated 
Henry Clay, of Kentucky, who op- 
posed annexation, and the Demo- 
crats, James K. Polk, of Tennessee, 
who favored it. The Abolitionists 
were strong enough by this time to form the Liberty 
party, and nominated James G. Birney, of Ohio, who 
had been their choice four years before. 




I ■■ ■ \(CLAyi 



ELECTION OF 1844 



238 



NATIONALITY 



1844 
The national 
conventions 



1837 
Wendell Phillips 




SAMUEL F. B. MORSE 
I79r-I872 



James K. Polk 
is elected 



1845 
Tyler signs the bill 
for the annexation 
of Texas 

1845 
Florida admitted 

1846 
Iowa admitted 



The trouble between the political parties of the North 
and the Abolitionists had caused much excitement. At 
Alton, 111., Elijah P. Lovejoy, editor of an Abolition 
paper, was killed during a riot. When, in a public 
meeting in Boston,* some one defended the rioters 
as patriots and preservers of the Union, a slender 
youth arose, and said in a voice of thrilling 
sweetness: "When I heard the gentleman lay 
down principles which placed the rioters, in- 
cendiaries, and murderers of Alton side by 
side with Otis and Hancock, with Quincy and 
Adams, I thought those pictured lips (pointing 
to the portraits of the patriots on the wall) 
would have broken into voice, to rebuke the 
recreant American, the slanderer of the dead." 
It was Wendell Phillips who devoted himself from 
that night to the abolition of slavery. 
At the election, the Liberty party drew away enough 
votes from Henry Clay' to give the victory to James K. 
Polk, and the news of his election was carried from Bal- 
timore to Washington over telegraph wires.' 

Encouraged by the election of their candidate, the 
Democrats in Congress passed the bill for the annexa- 
tion of Texas. President Tyler signed the bill, and sent 
it to Texas to be ratified. 

Tyler also signed the bill for the admission of Florida 
and Iowa. This would give each section fourteen 
States, and continue the "balance of power." Iowa, 
however, was not formally admitted until the follow- 
ing year. 



Un Faneuil Hall. ^^churz's "Henry Clay." 

^The wonderful invention of telegraphy had been perfected by Samuel 
Morse. It had seemed so impossible to the people that when an appropria- 
tion was asked of Congress, to lay wires between these two cities, one law- 
maker moved to amend by providing for a line to the moon! 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

JAMES K. POLK (ELEVENTH PRESIDENT, 1845-1849) 
DEMOCRATIC 

President Polk began his administration with a clear 
majority in both houses of Congress. It was an event- 
ful administration. ^g 

Texas was admitted; about two years later, Wisconsin Texas admitted 
balanced the free and slave States again; the territory of '°' ^ jg°g 
Oregon was divided between the United States and Great Wisconsin admitted 
Britain. ,^^3 

Now, the United States had claimed the region between The discovery of 

/-. I-/- • J Ai 1 1 i r J.1 J' r the Columbia River 

California and Alaska, on account of the discovery of^ 
the Columbia River by Captain Robert Gray in th 
good ship Columbia, while buying furs for China. 
This was during the administration of Wash- 
ington. The Lewis and Clark expedition, dur- 
ing the administration of Jefferson, had opened 
the way for the Pacific Fur Company to plant a 
colony on the Columbia which they called As- 
toria, after John Jacob Astor, of New York, 
the founder of the Company. 

During the administration of Monroe, the bound-' 
ary line between British America and the United 

_ , , r I -r^ , 1795-1849 

States was agreed upon to the crest of the Rocky 
Mountains. Beyond the mountains there was to be 8 8-86 
joint occupation of the Oregon lands for ten years, joint occupation 
Later, it was mutually agreed that the joint occupation °^°'^^s°" 
might continue until one should end the agreement by The south boundary 
giving a year's notice. Meanwhile, by the treaty be- o"^!"^^''^ 




JAMES K. POLK 



'See map of the territorial growth of the United States. 

[239I 



240 



NATIONALITY 



I 824- I 825 
The boundary line 
between undivided 
Oregon and Russian 
Alaska fixed 



1829 
Hall J.Kelley 
establishes a society 
for Oregon 
immigration 

1 841 

Captain Wilkes 
explores the 
Columbia River 

1843 
Settlement in Oregon 



1846 
The treaty with 
Great Britain 
concerning the 
north boundary line 
of Oregon ratified 
(June 15) 



Oregon organized as 
a free-soil Territory 



tween Spain and the United States for the sale of the 
Floridas, the south line of Oregon was agreed to be 42°. 
A few years later/ Russia, Great Britain, and the 
United States fixed the line between Oregon and Rus- 
sian Alaska at 54^ 40'. Thus the undivided Oregon 
country lay between 42^ and 54° 40'. 

Great Britain claimed more than half of Oregon, and 
was determined to control the Columbia River. The 
best way for the United States to secure the disputed 
lands was by settlement. Accordingly, at the beginning 
of Jackson's administration, H. J. Kelley established a 
society for Oregon immigration. A few years later Cap- 
tain Wilkes explored the Columbia in command of a 
squadron bearing scientists and practical surveyors, 
whose published accounts aroused the liveliest interest. 
Some enterprising pioneers pointed out an overland 
way to two hundred famihes, who pitched their tents on 
the banks of the Columbia. Other settlers followed, 
until there were several thousand in Oregon. 

Fmally a treaty was negotiated with Great Britain by 
which the region was divided at the parallel of 49° 
north and the Straits of Fuca, with the Columbia River 
on the American side. The tract thus secured was more 
than twice as large as Great Britain and Ireland. It 
included what are now the States of Oregon, Idaho, 
Washington, and parts of Montana and Wyoming. Two 
years later, Oregon, after a long and bitter debate be- 
tween the slavery and antislavery factions in Congress, 
was organized as a free-soil Territory. 

Although Texas had been admitted into the Union, 
its southwest boundary line had not been settled. 

The government of Mexico was not disposed to favor 
the Texans since their desertion to the United States, 
and drew their western boundary line along the Nueces 



* See page 216. 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 



241 



River.* The Texans, however, insisted that the Rio 
Grande was the dividing Hne. It is thought that 
arbitration might have settled the disputes, but when 
the Texan Legislature begged the government to protect 
the State, President Polk sent General Zachary Taylor 
across the Nueces with an "army of occupation," 

A scouting party of American dragoons was attacked 
by the Mexicans, and seventy of them were killed. Then 
General Taylor engaged and defeated the Mexican armies 
at Palo Alto and at Resaca de la Palma. The Mexicans 
recrossed the Rio Grande; Taylor invaded Mexico. 



1846 

Zachary Taylor at 
Palo Alto 

(May 8) 

and 

Resaca de la Palma 

(May 9) 




Meantime Congress declared that ' ' war existed by congress declares 

, f.i II- fuT- !) war with Mexico 

act 01 the republic 01 Mexico. (May 13) 

Now the republic of Mexico included California 
within its boundaries. It was undesirable to Great 
Britain that the commerce-pushing United States 
should obtain control of California, the gateway to 
China and the East Indies, and British war ships hov- 
ered threateningly in the Pacific; yet Great Britain could 
not well interfere in Mexican affairs after having given 
open approval to the Monroe doctrine. 

In the battle of Monterey, General Taylor shared his Monterey 
honors of victory with several West Point graduates. epemer24 
among whom were young Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, 
and Ulysses S. Grant, of Ohio, both destined to be disi- 

^ See map of territorial growth of United States. 
16 



242 



NATIONALITY 



1847 
Buena Vista 

(February 23) 



John C. Fremont 
in California 




ROBERT FIELD STOCKTON 
1795-1866 



California declares 
independence 



184b 
Stephen W. Kearney 
at Santa Fe 

(August 18) 



tinguished actors in our national drama. At Buena 
Vista, the following year, Taylor achieved one of the 
most brilliant successes of the war. 

Meantime John C. Fremont, the "Pathfinder" in 
the far West, crossed the Sierra Nevada. He found 
the Mexicans of California planning to massacre 
American settlers, and accept the protection of 
Great Britain, in case of war between Mexico 
and the United States, 

Acting under instructions from the government, 
Fremont sought to gain the good will of the in- 
habitants. He drilled them at arms, and in a 
few weeks a flag of independence with a grizzly 
bear for its device, was waving over California. 
When the Mexican authorities attempted to re- 
gain the territory, Fremont with his troops, and Com- 
modore Stockton with a fleet of vessels, put the Ameri- 
can flag over the forts on the coast. 

General Kearney reached Santa Fe, by way of the 
Santa Fe trail, occupied it, and declared New Mexico a 
part of the United States by right of conquest. He 
then marched to California which was already under the 




1847 

Winfield Scott at 
Vera Cruz 

(March 29) 



control of Fremont when he arrived. 

Meantime General Winfield Scott had as- 
sumed chief command of the American armies. Re-en- 
forced by a part of Taylor's troops, he landed at Vera 
Cruz, occupied that city after a bombardment, and set 



POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 243 

out for the city of Mexico. At Cerro Gordo he drove cerro Gordo 



(April 18) 
Churubusco 



Santa Anna to flight. At Churubusco, Mohno del Rey, 

and Chapultepec he was victorious; and at Mexico, with (August 20) 

r-^ -ni T^T Molino del Rey 

Ulysses S. Grant, Robert E. Lee, and other young (Septembers) 
heroes, he unfurled the stars and stripes over the gov- chapuitepec 

'^ '-' (September 13) 

ernment building on the site of the temple that Cortez Mexico 

had stormed more than three hundred years before. epemeri4 

The Mexicans would hear of no treaty of peace. 
President Polk refused to give up the territory his armies 
had gained. The Thirtieth Congress assembled to listen The Thirtieth 
to his message,^ and was soon debating whether to vote ""^""^^^ 
more money to continue the war. 

Among the new members were Abraham Lincoln, of Abraham Lincoln 

TIT • -.I TT IT re T^ • r n r- • • • and Jefferson Davis 

lllmois, in the House, and Jenerson Davis, oi Mississippi, 
in the Senate. Both of these men were born in Ken- 
tucky. Davis was an aristocrat, whose gallant conduct 
during the Mexican war, and marriage to General Tay- 
lor's daughter, had given him high social honors; Lincoln 
was from the "poor whites," and attracted little atten- 
tion at Washington. 

Davis claimed that slavery was a benefit to both 
master and slave, and wanted to continue the war with • 

Mexico to the end that the whole country might be an- 
nexed as slave territory ; Lincoln abhorred the slave 
traffic, which had made his people outcasts on their 
native soil,- and was opposed to the war with Mexico, 
because he suspected it lo be for conquest. The one 
worshiped John C. Calhoun, who believed that the 
States might withdraw from the Union; the other took 
for his idol Henry Clay, who loved the Union so well that 
he had won the nanie of " Compromiser " in his efforts 



^ Electric wires bore the message as far west as St. Louis, and it was 
eagerly read throughout the country because of the excitement about the 
Mexican question. * See pages jy, 71, 214. 



244 



NATIONALITY 



Henry Clay's speech 
at Lexington 
denounces the war 



1848 

The treaty of 
Guadalupe Hidalgo 
(February 2) 



The death of 

John Quincy Adams 



The Senate ratifies 
the Mexican treaty 



to hold the States together. These two members of 
the Thirtieth Congress would one day be the leaders 
of parties they represented. 

In the House was Andrew Johnson, a tailor, of Ten- 
nessee; among the senators were Daniel Webster, John 
C. Calhoun, Thomas H. Benton, and young Stephen A. 
Douglas, of Illinois. Henry Clay was not in the 
Thirtieth Congress, but in a speech delivered in Lex- 
ington, Ky. , denouncing the Mexican war, he said he 
feared the president's policy was to annex Mexico to the 
United States, and declared that Congress should dis- 
claim the "desire on our part to acquire any foreign 
territory whatever for the purpose of propagating slavery 
or of introducing slaves from the United States." 

Clay's words aroused the Whigs. They opposed the 
proposition to vote a war loan. Abraham Lincoln pre- 
sented a set of resolutions asking the president to state 
the "exact spot" where the blood of Americans had 
been shed. He insisted that American troops had in- 
vaded Mexican soil. 

In the midst of the debating, a courier rode into 
Washington to deliver a treaty of peace with Mexico, 
which had been signed at Guadalupe Hidalgo, a small 
town near the city of Mexico. 

Even while the president's report was at the door of 
the Senate, John Quincy Adams, the "old man eloquent," 
fell dying from his chair in the House of Representatives. 
For more than fifty years Adams had served his country; 
and Congress, without regard to party, paid tribute to 
his memory. 

When Congress met, after an adjourned session, the 
treaty was accepted with a few changes; and the Ameri- 
can troops withdrew from the Mexican capital. 

By the treaty of Guadalupe, New Mexico and Califor- 



folk's administration 245 

nia, including California, New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, 
Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming, were added 
to the United States by purchase;* and the boundary 
line between the two countries was made to extend 
along the Rio Grande from its mouth to the southern 
limit of New Mexico; thence westward along the 
boundary of that territory to the Gila River, and along 
the Gila to the Colorado, and thence due west.^ _ 

A few years later, by the Gadsden purchase, a tract The Gadsden 
of 45.535 square miles was added to this cession.* purchase 

By the annexation of Texas, and the cession of 
Mexico, a larger territory was added than that of the 
thirteen colonies at the time of their permanent Union, 
and our Pacific Coast was extended. But the land of The revival of the 
fruits and flowers threw an apple of discord into the lap ^'^"'"^ question 
of fair Columbia. The republic of Mexico had prohib- 
ited slavery, and thus the newly acquired territory was 
free soil. 

The antislavery faction cried, "No more slave terri- 
tory! All the free territory must remain free!" The The whigs and the 
Whigs and Democrats of the South drew closer together so^u7h dTaVcios^ 
in defense of Southern institutions. The Mexican war together 
had been largely carried on by Southern men, and the 
two greatest generals, Taylor and Scott, had been from 
the South. Every loyal Southerner felt that he should 
help to further advance the cotton industry. 

Meanwhile David Wilmot, a Democratic member of The-wumot 
Congress from Pennsylvania, had proposed that slavery p"""'"" fa-'stopast 
should be forever prohibited in all the new territory. 

This famous Wilmot proviso failed to pass both houses 



^The consideration was $15,000,000, in addition to the payment of the 

claims of the American citizens against Mexico amounting to $3,500,000. 

^ See map of territorial growth. ^ Bought of Mexico for $10,000,000. 



246 



NATIONALITY 



of Congress, but, as we shall see, its policy was really 
1848 carried out, and Texas was the last State admitted with 

VTisconsin admitted slavcs. The admission of Wisconsin two years after the 
debate on the Wilmot proviso only served to increase 
the desire in the South to create another slave State, 
And so when the national election drew near, the great 
issue was slavery in the California territory. A new 




wmo.iTjiyton) 



ELECTION OF 1848 



1848 



The Free-soil party party, the " Frce-soilcrs, " was formed of the Abolition- 
is organize -^^^^ ^^^ those of the Whigs and Democrats who sup- 

ported the Wilmot proviso. This was largely due to 
the fact that although Whigs and Democrats knew that 
slavery was the issue, neither party said anything about 
it for fear of losing votes. The Whigs of the North 
were not willing to lose the Whigs of the South, and 
the Democrats of the South were not willing to lose 
the Democrats of the North. 

The Free-soilers did not succeed at the polls; but 



Polk's administration 247 

with Martin Van Buren, of New York, as their candi- 
date for president, and Charles Francis Adams, of Massa- 
chusetts, for vice-president, they drew so many votes 
from the Democrats in New York that they helped to 
defeat Lewis Cass and William O. Butler, the Demo- 
cratic nominees. The Whig nominees, General Zachary General xayior 
Taylor, of Louisiana, and Millard Fillmore, of New ^'^^'^^^ p-^'^ent 
York, were elected. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

ZACHARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE 
(TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH PRESIDENTS, 1849-1853) 

WHIG 

1 849 
President Taylor was called to preside over a vast President xayior- 

territory. From the Atlantic sea board, our boundarv ^^'"'"'^'',^''°" ^ 

•^ ' J begins (March 5) 

lines had reached beyond the Alleghanies, crossed the 
Mississippi to the mountains, and, scaling these, 
had reached the Pacific. When the treaty was 
signed for the cession of California and New Mex- 
ico, it was hoped that immigration would, in time, 
settle up the country on account of the fertile 
soil and the harbor of San Francisco. 

Hardly were the new lands acquired, however, 
when it was known that gold had been discov- 
ered among the foothills of the Sierras. 

The sluices of Sutter's sawmill near the site 
of Sacramento first revealed the precious metal ; zachary taylor 

and then it was found in rocks, rivers, and ravines. i784-i85o 

In a few weeks, four thousand men were on the banks of '^"^^ 

10 IT T'l 1 J • Gold found in the 

tne bacramento Kiver. The gold excitement spread, sierras (January; 




248 



NATIONALITY 



The gold fever 



The two sea routes 
to California 



The overland route 



Salt I^ake City 



Sailors abandoned their ships, privates deserted the 
army, farmers left their plows in the field, merchants 
closed their shops to join in the rush for gold. Vir- 
ginians, descendants of the gold hunters of Jamestown 
Colony, sold their slaves, and, with the money strapped 
about their waists, renewed the search of the cavaliers. 
The news of the marvelous gold fields crossed the sea. 
Once more, as in the time of Raleigh, ships set sail from 
English ports in search of gold in America. 

Every available vessel was pressed into service to 
transport passengers to San Francisco. There were 
two routes by sea: one by way of the Isthmus of Panama 
where pestilence was to be feared, and the other around 
Cape Horn, which took seven months. 

The overland route to Sacramento followed the trail 
of Fremont, the pathfinder. The emigrants started 
from St. Joseph, Mo., in early spring, that the prairies 
might furnish food for their stock, and, after weeks of 
travel, reached Ft. Laramie at the base of the Rocky 
Mountains. Camp fires stretched in one unending line 
along the emigrant trail. There was constant fear of 
the Indians. Cholera broke out, and four thousand died 
with the disease the first year. But on through the 
mountain passes flowed the stream of "prairie schoon- 
ers" to Salt Lake City, where a peculiar religious sect, 
called the Mormons, dwelt. This town had been estab- 
lished by Brigham Young about the time of the gold 
discoveries in California. With its wide streets, and 
streams of fresh water, brought from the mountains, it 
was like a garden in the wilderness. Refreshed, and 
replenished with supplies at the "City of the Saints," 
the emigrants pushed on to Sacramento. 

In the first year after the discovery of gold at Sutter's 
Mill, eighty-five thousand people had made their way_by 



TAYLOR'S ADMINISTRATION 



249 



The " Forty-niners" 



San Francisco 



1849 
A State constitutioa 
adopted 



Slavery prohibited 



land or sea to this El Dorado of the West, and were im- 
mortalized ever after by the name of ' ' forty-niners. " San 
Francisco, with two thousand inhabitants in February, 
had twenty thousand on New Year's day of the follow- 
ing year. 

The American flag waved over Chinese, Mexicans, 
Malays from the islands, and adventurers from Europe. 
Notwithstanding the efforts of a military governor, how- 
ever, the Territory was in a state of anarchy. The bet- 
ter class of citizens insisted on safer laws than those of 
the bowie knife and revolver, and a convention which 
met to form a State government, asked admission to 
the Union. 

Now there were no slaves in California. Everybody 
labored with his own hands, and a clause in the consti- 
tution, prohibiting slavery, passed without comment. 
No one stopped to think or care what effect another free 
State would have in the halls of Congress. And when victor Hugo 
the Thirty-first Congress assembled, a struggle began unke'dstltw^ 
over the slavery question which was to last a qua.rteT ^-^f^^^-^^. 
of a century. 

The eyes of all nations were fixed on the United 
States at that time. Most of the monarchies had 
liberated their slaves; yet the republic of the 
United States still held men in bondage. 
"Liberty is wearing a chain!" cried Victor 
Hugo from France. ' ' The United States 
must renounce slavery, or they must renounce 
Liberty! " 

The Thirty-first Congress was an assembly of 
remarkable men. In the Senate were Clay, in ill 
health; Webster, " soon to fall," and Calhoun, near 
death's door. Each was the idol of his section, and ^^^9 

The Thirty-first 

the North, the South, and the West were said to meet congress 




VICTOR HUGO 
18C2-1885 



2 50 



NATIONALITY 



Henry Clay, the 
"great pacificator' 



together when these great orators entered the Senate. 
Among the other members of the Congress were Wil- 
liam H. Seward, of New York; Salmon P. Chase, of 
Ohio; Samuel Houston, of Texas; Jefferson Uavis, of 
Mississippi, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia. 
All realized from the beginning the impending struggle, 
and a week was spent trying to select a doorkeeper 
whose views were acceptable to a majority. 

When the demand of California for admission to the 
Union was read, it was argued that the Missouri Com- 
promise would not apply, because a part of the territory 
lay south of the parallel 36° 30'. Henry Clay was a 
slaveholder, but an enthusiast for freedom. His com- 
promises on the admission of Missouri had kept peace 
for thirty years. He now sought again to cement the 
The "Omnibus bill" scctious by a compromisc, and proposed: First, that Cali- 
fornia be admitted as a free State, that Utah and New 
Mexico be organized with or without slavery, as they 
might desire, and that Texas should be paid to give up 
all claim to New Mexico; second, that the slave trade 
be abolished in the District of Columbia; third, that a 
law be enacted for the arrest and restoration of fugitive 
slaves found in the. free States. 

Daniel Webster, in his famous Seventh-of-March 
speech, supported the compromise allowing popular 
sovereignty in the Territories. He said he saw the 
ordinance of nature written on the mountains and pla- 
teaus that cotton plantations could never be established 
in Utah and New Mexico, and they would come in free 
anyway. 

Jefferson Davis declared there was only one compro- 
mise possible, and that was to extend the Missouri line 
to the Pacific, and allow the South her share of the new 



Daniel Webster 
supports Clay's 
compromise 



Jefferson Davis 
demands the 
extension of the 
Missouri line 



territory. 




TAYLORS ADMINISTRATION 25 I 

The aged Calhoun refused a compromise, and de- John c. Caihoun 

1111 r ^ i ii -VT .1 1 demands a balance 

manded a balance 01 power between the North and of power 
the South. The South, he said, must have more ter- 
ritory for her expansion; must have less tariff on her 
imports; and the federal government must cease to 
assume so much power over the States. If these rights 
could not be granted the South, she should be al- ''^ , 

lowed to separate and depart in peace. ^ 

William H. Seward, to whom John Quincy ^^^^ \ 

Adams had said before he died, "I look to you '^^ 

to do a great deal for the cause of freedom," 
declared, in a powerful speech, he would listen to ^^ 
"no compromise on a question of conscience." 

Thus the extremists of each party refused 
to compromise; but the majority of the peo- 
ple were anxious for peace, and favored the 
"Omnibus bill," as Clay's compromise meas- millard fillmore 

ure was called. So Cahfornia was admitted free. 1800-1874 

While the discussion was engrossing the attention of g 

the whole country, President Taylor died. He was car- Death of President 
ried to his grave in a solemn pageant; and "Old ^ayior (juiy 9) 
Whitey," the famous war horse of the "general who 
never surrendered," was led with empty saddle behind 
the funeral car. 

To Millard Fillmore fell the task of signing the com- Miiiard Fiiimore 
promises of Henry Clay. The people rejoiced when the p^esE juiy 10) 
struggle was over. They believed the slavery question 
was settled forever. And an engraving hung on the 
walls of many homes, called "Union," which showed ciay's compromises 
statesmen from both sections — Clay, Webster, Calhoun, ^'f^ p^^J'*- ^"^ 

■^ ' ' ' signed by the 

and others — standing near a statue of Washington, who president 
bore the national emblem in his hand. 




*Read Johnston's "American Orations," Vol, II. 



252 



NATIONALITY 



The fugitive slave 
law is unpopular 
in the North 



Peace and prosperity 



Manufactures in 
New England and 
the Middle States 



Immigration of 
industrial classes 



The potato famine 
in Ireland 



Routes for a Pacific 
railroad surveyed 



The fugitive slave clause was very unpopular in the 
North. Yet Clay's last compromise was of great value 
to national unity. It held the States together until the 
slow march of public sentiment had united factions for a 
final struggle which would prevent disunion.^ 

All parties seemed now at peace. The danger of the 
slavery question lay hidden under the blossoms of pros- 
perity. Trade was greatly stimulated by the new gold 
circulation, not only in the United States but in Europe. 
Mbre markets for goods were opened, more mills and 
foundries set up. Mountain streams furnished the finest 
water power in the world; and Pennsylvania coal fed 
furnaces for the new steam machinery. Massachusetts 
became the rival of England in weaving cloth of cotton 
and wool. The spindles at Lowell ran faster than those 
of Manchester; and textile fabrics began to be exported. 

Just about this time, there was an industrial depres- 
sion in Great Britain. The mill hands of the manufac- 
turing centers emigrated in large numbers to take their 
places in the American mills; and new steamers were 
built to help carry them. 

There had been a potato famine in Ireland, and many 
tenant farmers set their faces toward America, singing: — 

"To ihe West, to the West, to the hind of the free 
Where the mighty Missouri rolls down to the sea. 
Where a man is a man if he 's willing to toil. 
And the humblest may gather the fruits of the soil." 

To transport these people to their Western homes, 
new railroad lines were laid. A railroad was even pro- 
jected to the Pacific coast, and though the proposition 
was much ridiculed, surveyors were sent out to examine 
different routes. 



'Rhodes's "History of the United States," Vol. I. 



Fillmore's administration 253 

For rapid transit beyond the Mississippi, a stage line Transportation 
with tight coaches for crossing streams now ran once a 
month between Independence, Mo., and Santa Fe, 
New Mexico; steamboats carried Eastern passengers 
up the lakes to Chicago, or down the Ohio toward 
Independence. The railway was stretching farther 
west, but the application of steam to travel was dreaded 
by the masses. There were so many accidents from im- 
perfect boilers and inexpert firemen that some legisla- 
tors recommended that a private car be attached to every 
train, where one of the directors of the railroad company 
should be compelled by law to risk his life with the rest. jg 

Meantime the public lands, Indian affairs, pensions, Department of the 
and patents had grown to such proportions that the de- 
partment of the interior w*as established, including these 

bureaus. .0 , 

1045 
Filled with pride at our record on the seas, .Con- The navai academy 

gress had established at Annapolis a training-school for ^' °"^^° '^ 

the navy corresponding to that of the army at West 

Point. 

Then, because the revenues from the post-office ex- 1851 

ceeded the expenditures, postage, which was ten cents P°f'^se rates 

'^ r o ' reduced to three 

per half ounce for over three hundred miles, was reduced cents 

to three cents under three thousand miles. „ 

1 85 1 

When Britannia gave her first World's Fair, she The nrst world's 
smiled graciously on young Columbia, and invited her ^^'^ ^' ^"""^"^ 
to come. We had no laces, silks, and fine porcelains to 
carry across the sea; but the fleece from the sheep of 
Tennessee took the first prize over all raw wool, and our 
inventions excelled those of any other nation. A yacht The first imerna- 

. 1 A • f 1 tional regatta off 

built from the American forest won the gold cup in the cowes, isie of Wight 
races. And Queen Victoria good-naturedly acknowl- 
edged that the United States had again conquered Great 
Britain on the seas. 



254 



NATIONALITY 



1851 
Louis Kosfiuth 



The Monroe 
doctrine again 
enforced 



An era of social 
reforms 



The tariff and 
internal improve- 
ments at federal 
expense 



1852 
The national 
conventions 



About this time, Louis Kossuth came from Hungary to 
seek aid for his country against the combined oppression 
of Austria and Russia. He was received as a hero and 
martyr for Hberty. A hundred thousand people gathered 
to greet him at the battery in New York where Hun- 
garian flags twined with the stars and stripes. When 
Kossuth asked aid from the cities, money poured in, and 
troops began to volunteer to march for the plains of Hun- 
gary. At Washington, he was well received; but the 
Monroe doctrine had now become a part of our national 
policy. Congress would not pass any measures to inter- 
fere with European affairs, and, in the end, Kossuth sailed 
away without an American army. 

About this time many reforms were attempted. Tem- 
perance societies were organized to reform drunkards; 
benevolent societies found work for the unemployed; and 
the first " Woman's Rights " convention, under the lead- 
ership of Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton, 
was held at Rochester, N. Y. It demanded reforms 
in the employment of women in the trades and pro- 
fessions, and protested against taxation without repre- 
sentation. 

There was little difference between the Whigs and the 
Democrats after the compromise of 1850 except on the 
tariff question. The Whigs still advocated a tariff to 
protect American industries, and desired, from the sur- 
plus thus obtained, to continue internal improvements. 
The Democrats demanded tariff for revenue only. They 
distrusted the paternal or " nursing" system in develop- 
ing the country. 

The Whigs nominated General Winfield Scott for 
president; the Democrats, Franklin Pierce, of New 
Hampshire; and the Free-soilers, John Parker Hale, 
also of New Hampshire. Before the election. Henry 



FILLMORE S ADMINISTRATION 



255 



Clay, the founder of the Whig party, the "prince of Death of Henry ciay 
the Senate," the "Great Pacificator," died at Washing- wetsL^'""' 
ton, and in a few weeks Daniel Webster, the " Defender 
of the Constitution," the " ParHamentary Hercules," 
died at his home in Marshfield. The death of these 
two leaders cast a gloom over their party. Many South- 




WHIOaCOTT) 



ELECTION OF 1852 

ern Whigs went over to the Democrats. Many North- 
ern Whigs would not vote at all. 

Franklin Pierce, the Democrat, was elected president The eve of great 
by a large majority. The candidate of the Free-soil 
party did not receive a single electoral vote. But, as we 
shall see, the country was on the eve of great political 
changes. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 



1853 

The World's Fair at 
New York 




FRANKLIN PIERCE 
1804-1869 



1851 
The " filibusters ' 
in Cuba 



Death of Lopez 



FRANKLIN PIERCE (FOURTEENTH PRESIDENT 

1853-1857), DEMOCRATIC 

President Pierce's administration opened with the 
World's Fair in the Crystal Palace at New York City. 
The palace was even more beautiful than that of En- 
gland, and spread over five acres. The marbles of 
Thorwaldsen from Denmark, the silks, laces, tapes- 
tries, and porcelains from France, and the chased 
silver, and china from England, Germany, Bel- 
gium, Holland, and Italy, made fine displays, 
and surpassed anything that the United States 
could show. But in labor-saving inventions, in 
sewing machines, steam printing presses, reaping 
and mowing machines, and all kinds of farming 
implements, our country was far in advance 
of any other. 
About this time Cuba came into public notice. 
There had been many secret expeditions to conquer 
the island, and annex it to the Union as a slave State. 
One band of " filibusters, " who thought the natives were 
ready to rebel, was led by Lopez, a Spaniard. Lopez, 
planning to found a republic, and then offer Cuba for an- 
nexation to the United States on certain terms, started 
secretly from New Orleans with about five hundred young 
Americans. The natives, however, feared to take up 
arms against the Spanish government. Lopez was seized 
at Havana, and put to death. The most of his com- 
panions were sent to Spain to work in the mines. 

The cotton States desired the fertile island greatly. 
They said that Cuba, in the possession of Spain, endan- 
[256] 



PIERCES ADMINISTRATION 257 

gered our country; if the Spaniards freed their slaves, 
it would cause a revolution among the negroes of the 
South. 

France and England sympathized with Spain in her France and Great 
struggle to keep her colony, and proposed that the uar^anJec'ubl'^ ? 
United States join a compact guaranteeing Cuba to province of Spain 

forever 

Spain forever. Edward Everett, secretar}^ of state, 

replied that President Fillmore could not see with 

indifference the island in the possession of any other 

European government than Spain; that the American 

government would consider the acquisition of Cuba by 

force a disgrace to the civilization of the age; but if the The Monroe 

Cubans achieved their own independence and wished to '^°«:'"^ -pp'--^ ."' 

■"■ ■ tne Cuban question 

be annexed to the United States, there should be no com- 
pact to prevent this. In fact, the Monroe doctrine, that 
the United States would make no political alliance with ,854 

European powers concerning the western continent, was Thcostend 

manifesto" is 

msisted upon. published 

President Pierce's ministers to England, France, 
and Spain went further than Fillmore's secretary. 
They met of their own accord at Ostend, Bel- 
gium, and drew up resolutions that the United 
States should have Cuba either by purchase or 
conquest. This declaration created surprise at 
home and abroad. President Pierce did not 
accept the opinion of his foreign ministers; 
yet he felt it would add to the glory of his ad- 
ministration if the United States might pur- 
chase Cuba. Spain conceded that the United 

^ EDWARD EVERETT 

States might win the "Queen of the Antilles" 1794-1865 

by war, but said she would not think for a moment 
of selling the island Columbus had found. She threat- Spain refuses to 
ened to arm her slaves against an invader, and sent six " ^"^^ 
thousand additional troops to defend her possession. 
17 




258 



NATIONALITY 



Stephen A. Douglas 
introduces the 
Kansas-Nebraska bill 



The Platte country 



1820 



Jefferson Davis 



William H. Seward 
and Charles Sumner 



But troubles at home were distracting the attention of 
the people from foreign questions. The same year that 
the Ostend manifesto was published, Stephen A. Doug- 
las, of Illinois, introduced the Kansas-Nebraska bill in 
Congress. The unorganized territory west of the Mis- 
sissippi, drained by the Platte and Missouri Rivers, com- 
prised Kansas, Nebraska, North and South Dakota, 
and a part of Montana, Colorado and Wyoming. It 
was larger than all the free States east of the Rocky 
Mountains. By the Missouri Compromise,' slavery 
within its borders was prohibited. 

But the senator from Illinois asked that the coun- 
try be divided into two territories to be called Kansas 
and Nebraska; that the Missouri Compromise, by which 
the soil north of parallel 36'^ 30' was "forever" devoted 
to freedom, be declared void; and that Kansas and Ne- 
braska should both come into the Union, with or with- 
out slavery, as their constitutions might prescribe. You 
will remember that this " local option " was the compro- 
mise agreed upon for Utah and New Mexico by Clay's 
" Omnibus bill."'* 

The Kansas-Nebraska bill, which repealed the Mis- 
souri Compromise, created immense excitement. Doug- 
las was a good debater, and Jefferson Davis led the ranks 
of those who had always believed that the Missouri 
Compromise was unconstitutional. 

The Whigs realized the effect of the bill. * ' We are 
on the eve of a great national transaction," said Wil- 
ham H. Seward, "a transaction that will close a cycle 
in the history of our country." "This bill puts Free- 
dom and Slavery face to face and bids them grapple," 
said Charles Sumner, of Massachusetts. 

'See page 215. 
2 See page 250. 



PIERCE S ADMINISTRATION 259 

Horace Greeley, of the New York Tribune, Charles A. The press in the 
Dana, of the New York Siin, Thurlow Weed, of the !?°"^ T°u" !^l.,. 

' Kansas-Nebraskabill 

Albany Journal, and William Cullen Bryant, of the 
Evening Post, wrote editorials against the Kansas- 
Nebraska bill. Protesting memorials poured into Con- thc Kansas- 
gress, yet the bill passed both houses, and was signed ^ecomls'l'i'aw 
by President Pierce. 

Meantime Kansas, on the border of the slave States, 
invited immigration. Her neighbors across the Mis- 
souri River stood ready the moment the Kansas-Ne- 
braska bill should be signed to dedicate the territory 
to slavery. 

The Kansas prairies were adapted to the cultivation 
of corn, wheat, and pasturage, which was the Northern 
method of farming, and with the hope of securing the 
territory for freedom, emigration from the North began immigration of 
as soon as Kansas was opened for settlement. Bureaus =^"«i^'^^"y families 

'^ to Kansas 

to aid the movement were established, and contributions 
were made. " It is better to do something for free labor 
than talk of auction blocks and bloodhounds," said the 
leaders. Emigrants took up their line of march from • 

Massachusetts, and, before the year was out, several 
thousand Free-soilers camped in Kansas as actual set- 
tlers. They lived in rudely built cabins, or tents, and 
founded Lawrence, Topeka, and other towns. 

Slaveholders attempted to settle the prairies. They immigration of 
founded Atchison, Lecompton, and other towns; but p^osiavery families 
the climate was not favorable for cotton, and, if the State 
should be admitted free, they ran the risk of losing what 
slaves they might take with them. Many proslavery " Squatter cbims" 

men drove stakes into the ground to hold their claims, and 

. 1855 

returned to Missouri to await elections. At the election The " border 

for a territorial legislature, more than three hundred oro- '■"'^=»"s"^'t^>«= 

. , , Kansas territorial 

slavery men, armed with bowie knives and revolvers, election (March) 



26o 



NATIONALITY 



The Topeka 
constitution 




HARRIET BEECHER STOWE 
1811-1896 



After 



The native 
Americans, or 
•'Know-nothings' 



Sympathy for 
fugitive slaves 



crossed over from Missouri and marched to the polls. 
Most of the proslavery candidates were elected to the 
legislature, which adopted the slavery laws of Missouri. 
The antislavery settlers refused to recognize this 
version of "State rights." They armed them- 
selves, and met at Topeka in convention. They 
wrote out a free State constitution, which was 
ratified by their party, elected their State offi- 
cers, and asked Congress to admit Kansas as a 
free State. 

Proslavery delegates met at Lecompton, 
and wrote out a constitution for a slave 
State. Meanwhile factions all over the 
country looked forward to the day when the 
Territory of Kansas would be admitted into 
the Union as a free or slave State, 
the Kansas-Nebraska bill be- 
came a law, many voters left the two 
great parties. The Native American 
party became prominent. It was a 
secret organization, having several 
degrees of membership, and called 
Know-nothings, because only mem- 
bers of the high degrees knew 
the secrets. The Know-noth- 
ings were hostile to illiterate 
foreigners, who, they said, were 
robbing American citizens of 
work, and having too much power 
at the ballot box; they demanded that 
an immigrant should live in America 
twenty-one years before he could be naturalized. 

Meanwhile the antislavery element in politics had 
been steadily increasing. Escaped negroes, seized by 




HENRY W. LONGFELLOW 

1807-1882 



PIERCES ADMINISTRATION 



261 



United States marshals in the North, and carried back to 
bondage under the fugitive slave law, created sympathy 
for their sufferings. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," a story of 
slavery in the South, by Harriet Beecher Stowe, had 
much influence for the cause of freedom. At last, many 
antislavery Democrats, antislavery Whigs, Free-soil- 
ers, and Know-nothings, united under the name of the 



" Uncle Tom's 
Cabin " 




ELECTION OF 1856 



1856 



National Republican party. They were called "Black The Republican 
Republicans " by the Democrats, because they favored ^^(pe^i^T^zz) 
the negroes. ^g^^ 

At the national conventions^ the American party ThenMionai 
nominated Millard Fillmore, of New York, for the '^°"^«°'^»"^ 
presidency; the Democrats, James Buchanan, of Penn- 



* The great question at issue in the political campaign called many to Abraham Lincoln 
public platforms. "I was losing interest in politics when the repeal of the becomes again 
Missouri Compromise aroused me," said Abraham Lincoln, the antislavery 
Whig, who cast his vote with the new Republican party. 



interested In politics 



262 



NATIONALITY 



sylvania; and the Republicans, John C. Fremont, of 
California. 

This campaign was even more exciting than that of 
"Tippecanoe." There were "Rocky Mountain" Glee 
clubs and pioneer axes in the processions. The Decla- 
ration of Independence and the Constitution of the 
United States were printed, and scattered all over the 
country. 

Longfellow, Bryant, George William Curtis, Wash- 
ington Irving, Emerson, and other distinguished men of 
the North wrote and spoke for freedom. Yet Jam.es 
Buchanan was elected president, with John C. Brecken- 
ridge, of Kentucky, vice-president. 



CHAPTER XL 



1857 

The Dred Scott 
decision of the 
Supreme Court 

(March 6) 




JAMES BUCHANAN 

1791-1868 



JAMES BUCHANAN (FIFTEENTH PRESIDENT, 1857-1861) 
DEMOCRATIC 

Two days after the inauguration of James Buchanan, 
the famous Dred Scott decision was handed down from 
the United States Supreme Court. Dred Scott, 
a negro slave of Missouri, had been brought into 
the free State of Illinois, and afterward taken into 
Minnesota. In about four years he was taken 
back to Missouri. When he was whipped by his 
master, he sued him for assault and battery. The 
negro claimed that having lived on free soil, he 
was not a slave when he returned to Missouri- 
Carried from court to court, the case finally 
reached the Supreme Court. Chief Justice 
Roger B. Taney announced as the decision of this 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 263 

court of last resort that Dred Scott was a chattel, and chiefjustice 
his owner might carry him to any part of the country, 1ZZl^^^^M^Ky 
as he would any other piece of property; that the negro of the Missouri 

Compromise 

could not have citizenship under the Constitution, and 
therefore had no recourse to the courts; and he declared 
that the Missouri Compromise, which devoted to free- 
dom the territory north of 36° 30', was unconstitutional. 
Thus the Northwest Territory, set aside to liberty for- 
ever by the ordinance of 1787, was declared the possible 
home for slaves. '^■^^ ^'^^ ^cott 

decision strengthens 

Dred Scott himself was soon after set free by his mas- the cause of slavery 
ter; but the decision of the Supreme Court tended 
to agitate the cause of slavery. 

Meantime a few men in Kansas, with the aid of 
President Buchanan, tried to force the Lecomp- 
ton constitution upon Kansas Territory in spite 
of the wishes of the majority of its citizens. This 
was carrying things so far that the Northern 
Democrats, with Douglas, the author of the Kan- 
sas-Nebraska bill, as their leader, cried out against it. fo^^" brooke taney 

° 1777-1864 

The State elections, following these troublous 
events, showed Republican rule supreme in New England, 
and gaining in the Northwestern States. In Illinois the jg g 

candidate of the Democrats for senator was Stephen Stephen a. Douglas 

A. Douglas, for re-election, and that of the Republicans uncoinrcardidates 

was Abraham Lincoln. Lincoln believed that the Con- for the United 

States Senate 

stitution did not interfere with such slave States as 
already existed, but declared it was a national crime to 
extend slavery into the Territories. And so Douglas and The debates of 
Lincoln carried on a joint discussion throughout Illinois °"sasan 
upon the questions of slavery in the Territories, popular 
sovereignty, and the Dred Scott decision. Douglas 
was elected, for Illinois had long been divided on the 
subject of slavery. But, as we shall see, the compromises 




264 



NATIONALITY 




JOHN BROWN 
1800-1859 



John Brown in 
Kansas 



The " underground 
railroad " 

1859 
John Brown at 
Harper's Ferry 



which Douglas was forced to make to win in this race 
defeated him later on for the 'presidency. 

"Honest Abe" became the standard bearer of the 
Republicans of the West. He had said in accepting his 
nomination: "A house divided against itself can not 
stand. I believe this government can not endure per- 
manently half slave and half free. It will become all 
one thing or all the other. Either the opponents of 
slavery will arrest the farther spread of it, and place it 
where the public mind shall rest in the belief that 
it is in the course of ultimate extinction, or its ad- 
vocates will push it forward till it shall become 
alike lawful in all the States, old as well as new, 
North as well as South." ^ 

The congressional campaigns throughout the 
country were exciting. In many open-air meet- 
ings there were riots. ' ' I have witnessed the 
beginning of this government," said the aged 
General Lewis Cass, "and I sometimes think 
I may witness its end." 
About this time an event occurred which increased 
the political excitement. John Brown, of Connecticut, 
a descendant of the Pilgrims, and inheriting from them 
an int'ense love of liberty, moved to Kansas during the 
border warfare, and took part in the struggle for state- 
hood. He detested slavery, and could not wait for the 
slow development of pubhc opinion which would abolish 
it. He was very active in the "Underground Rail- 
road," a system of rescue stations by which fugitive 
slaves were assisted to Canada, and thus made free. 
Then that he might be of still greater service in the 
cause, he settled near Harper's Ferry, Va. With about 



* Read Nicolay and Hay's " Life of Lincoln." 



BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 265 

twenty followers he attacked the national arsenal at 
Harper's Ferry to secure weapons with which to arm 
the slaves against their masters. He was captured by 
Colonel Robert E. Lee, of the regular army, tried for 
treason, and hanged. 

On the day of his death he wrote, " I, John Brown, 
am now quite certain that the crimes of this guilty land 
will never be purged away but with blood. I had, as I 
now think, vainly flattered myself that without very 
much bloodshed it might be done." Some orators in 
the North, between hisses and cheers, called Harper's 
Ferry the "Lexington of a civil war." But many 
Northern men condemned Brown's raid as an "insane 
piece of folly." 

Meantime Kansas, torn with party strife, still lingered 
outside the Union ; but Minnesota and Oregon added ^ . . . 

' "-' Admission of 

two free States, so that when the Thirty-sixth Congress Minnesota (1858) and 
opened, there were eighteen free States and fifteen slave "'^°" ' ^^ 
States. The extreme Democrats came into this Con- 1859 

gress pledged to repeal the act against the importation 
of slaves. ^3^^ 

When the time for the national conventions arrived, The Republican 
the Republicans met at Chicago. "Honest Abe" Lin- chiZgonomL.es 
coin, the idol of his party in the West, had gained strength Abraham Lincoln 
in the East by some great speeches. One masterpiece 
of logic was delivered at Cooper Institute, New York. 
Horace Greeley said -of it: " I do not hesitate to pro- 
nounce it the very best political address to which I ever 
listened." Lincoln was prominent in the convention 
from the first. Others who led in the nominations were 
William H. Seward, of New York, Simon Cameron, of 
Pennsylvania, and Salmon P. Chase, of Ohio. Ballots 
changed until Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, was offered 
the highest place within the gift of his party. 



The Thirty-sixth 
Congress 



266 



NATIONALITY 



The Democratic 
convention at 
Charleston (April) 



The Democrats at 
Baltimore nominate 
Stephen A. Douglas 
(June) 




STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS 
1813-186t 



The Constitutional 
Union party 
nominates John Bell 



The Democrats met at Charleston, S. C. It is said 
that many delegates from the North saw there, for the 
first time, the auction block for slaves, and that the 
sight had a serious effect on their political views. For 
various reasons there was lack of harmony in the 
Charleston convention. It made no nominations, and 
adjourned to meet at Baltimore. 

The convention at Baltimore split into two factions. 
The majority of the Democrats nominated Stephen A. 
Douglas, of Illinois. They declared that each Ter- 
ritory, when framing the State constitution, should 
decide the question of slavery within its own 
borders ; and that Congress had no right to 
abolish slavery in the Territories. 

The seceding Democrats nominated John C. 
Breckinridge, of Kentucky. Their platform 
declared it to be the duty of Congress to pro- 
tect slavery wherever a slaveholder carried his 
slaves. Both factions asserted that Cuba should 
be acquired by the United States. 
Some Know-nothings and Whigs formed the Consti- 
tutional Union Party, and nominated John Bell, of 
Tennessee, with a platform which tried to ignore the 
slavery question. 



CHAPTER XLI 

JAMES BUCHANAN (1857-1861) (Continued) 
DEMOCRATIC 

The two great parties in the coming campaign were Protective tariff and 
the Repubhcans with "Protective tariff and freedom in t^r^r'lIeTradTaL 
the Territories!" as the battle cry, and the Democrats popular sovereignty 

•1)1 '" ^^^ Territories 

with "Free trade and popular sovereignty! 

Douglas took "the stump," and made eloquent 
speeches all over the country. But Lincoln with ad- 
mirable tact drew many to his standard. There were 
rail-splitting battalions, with mauls and axes to recall 
how Lincoln had once split rails for his living. There 
were "Wide-awake" clubs, uniformed in oilcloth caps -wide-awake" 
and capes, and carrying torches. There were floats of '^ " ^ 
flatboats and log cabins. And when the processions 
were over, the crowds drew up in line before some of 
the eloquent speakers to hear the great issues of the day 
discussed. Each party desired to preserve the Consti- 
tution. Each claimed to desire to hold the Union to- ^ 
gether. But, one scholar has declared, it all seemed as 
Thucydides said of the Greeks at the time of the Pelo- 
ponnesian war : "They did not understand one another 
any longer. Though they spoke the same language, 
words received a different meaning in different 
sections." ^g^^ 

At last, the battle of words was at an end. Abraham Abraham Lincoln 

t . 1 1 i J • J t elected president 

Lincoln was elected president. 

There was the greatest gloom in the South. On the The state convention 
1 8th of December, a salute of fifteen guns, one for each I'/^X^^^^tZc. 
slave State, welcomed a State convention at Charleston, of secession 

.. -. f 1 i«>-xi- ( December 20) 

S. C, which, two days after, adopted the Ordinance 

[267 J 



268 



NATIONALITY 



Alexander H. 
Stephens advises 
redress of grievances 
by appeal to 
Congress 



of Secession, and issued a declaration of independ- 
ence. Liberty poles were set up, and a banner, repre- 
senting the fifteen States, was unfurled from the capitol. 
The chief cause cited for the act of secession was the 
election of an antislavery president who had said that a 
nation could not endure half slave and half free. Alex- 
ander H. Stephens, of Georgia, the wisest statesman of 
the South, said he did not think the election of Lincoln 




ELECTION OF 1860 

a reason for seceding; that redress should be first 
demanded in Congress, and not a few other Southern 
statesmen agreed with him. 

South Carolina, however, soon floated the palmetto 
flag over the United States buildings; news from the 
North was put under the head of ' ' foreign " in the news- 
papers, and commissioners were sent to Washington to 
demand recognition for South Carolina as an independ- 
ent State. 



BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION 



269 




ALEXANDER H. STEPHENS 
1812-1883 



Before the close of January, Georgia, Alabama, 
Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, and Texas had also 
withdrawn from the Union. In February, the 
seceding States held a convention at Montgom- 
ery, Ala., and adopted a constitution for the 
' ' provisional government of the Confederate 
States of America," which was much like that 
of the United States, changed to permit slavery 
in the Territories. 

Jefferson Davis was elected president. In his 
inaugural address, he developed the policy of a con 
federacy of planters who should be independent of com- 1861 

mercial and manufacturing communities. Alexander H. seven other states 

*-' withdrawn from the 

Stephens was elected vice-president. He was at heart a Union (January) 
strong unionist, but, like Robert E. Lee and many other '^^^ Constitutional 

" "^ convention 

noble men of the South, was induced to support disunion (February) 
through loyalty to his section. On Washington's birth- JJ'/cTj"^^'^^'"^ °^ 
day. Castle Pinckney, which had been seized by the states of America 
militia of South Carolina, fired thirteen guns beneath Jelerson dIvIs, 
the Palmetto flag, while Fort Sumter, across the harbor, president, and 

. •11 Alexander H. 

with stars and stripes fiymg, gave the national salute Stephens, vice- 
of twenty-one guns. ""j^etuary .) 

The new government sent a commission across the 
sea to secure recognition in Europe. It was argued 
that the British government would aid the South. 
England wished free trade; the South would give 
free trade. England must have cotton for the 
spindles of her factories; the South could fur- 
nish it cheaper and of finer quality than any 
other country in the world. England wished 
a close ally to guard her British West Indies; 
the South, their nearest neighbor, would form 
an Anglo-American alliance for peace or war. It 
was also argued that France would recognize the jefferson davis 

1808-1889 




270 



NATIONALITY 



Commissioners sent 
to Europe to secure 
recognition and aid 
for the Confederacy 




ABRAHAM LINCOLN 
1809-1865 



Changes in 
Buchanan's cabinet 



1861 

Kansas admitted 
(January 29) 



Confederacy for much the same commercial reasons as 
Great Britain. The commissioners from the Confed- 
erate States of America set sail with high hopes. 

All these months, it was feared that the border States 
between the free States and the Gulf States would join 
the conspiracy against the Union. Frantic appeals were 
made to Lincoln to agree that Congress should restore 
the Missouri Compromise line. But he stood firm in 
what he believed to be right. He said that he had no 
intention of interfering with the institution of slav- 
ery in the States, but by their votes the people 
had declared that no free soil owned by the nation 
should become slave, and it would be his duty 
to execute the people's will. 

Meanwhile several members of President Bu- 
chanan's cabinet, whose sympathies were with 
secession, resigned. Their successors were loyal 
to the government, and urged the president to 
action. A merchant vessel with about two hun- 
dred and fifty men was sent to Major Robert 
Anderson, commander of Fort Sumter.* The ship was 
fired on by the South Carolina militia, and, turning 
about, sailed to New York. 

General Scott now urged the secretary of war to send 
a man-of-war to the forts, but the president was deter- 
mined that hostilities should not break out during the 
remainder of his administration. 

On his way from Illinois to Washington President- 
elect Lincoln stopped at Philadelphia. He unfurled the 
Union flag — now with thirty-four stars since waiting 
Kansas had been admitted — before an immense con- 
course in Independence Hall. ''There will be no 



*See map, page 275. 



BUCHANAN S ADMINISTRATION 



271 



bloodshed," he said, " unless it be forced upon the gov- 
ernment, and then the government will be forced to act 
in self-defense." 

As president-elect of the United States, Lincoln was 
about to take solemn oath ' ' to preserve, protect, and de- 
fend the Constitution of the United States," ^ and as mili- 
tary commander-in-chief he had the power to call out the 
whole army and navy to secure the ' ' faithful execution 
of the laws." 

The nev^^ly elected governors of many Northern States, 
certain that war was imminent, bought arms and equip- 
ments, ordered the militia to drill, and selected sites for 
camps. 

^ See Constitution of the United States, Article 1 1 , Appendix. 



Lincoln's speech 
in Independence 
Hall 




Formation of the government « 



The Administrations 



' Domestic ■ 



George Washington 

Federalist 

I 789-1 797 



John Adams 

Federalist 

I797-180I 



The commercial convention at Annapolis 
The Constitutional convention at Philadelphia 
The Constitution ratified by the States 
George Washington elected president of the United States 
The First Congress under the Constitution 
Supreme judge *" 
Five associate judges 
' President 
Secretary of State 
Secretary of the Treasury 
Secretary of War 
\^ [ Attorney-General 

'Tariff laws 

Assumption and bonding of debts 
National bank chartered 
Internal revenue taxes 
The first census 
Northwest Territory organized 
Indian wars 



Judicial Department j 



Executive Department 



I Foreign 



)Jay treaty 
Commercial treaty with Spain 
Proclamation of neutrality in war between 
England and France 
Alien and Sedition laws 



iAuen ana seaition laws 
„ ,. • 1 i.- \ Federalist 
Political parties | Democratic-Republic 

Foreign < Naval war with France 



Thomas Jefferson 
Democratic-Republican ' 
180I-1809 



James Madison 
Democratic-Republicaa 
1809-1817 



James Monroe 
Democratic-Republica. 
1817-1825 



John Quincy Adams 

National Republican 

1825-1829 



Domestic 



Explorations 
Fulton's steamboat 



Foreign 



{Purchase of Louisiana 
War with Tripoli 
Embargo Act 
Non-intercourse Act 

Domestic i Tecumseh's war 
Foreign \ War with Great Britain 

(Era of good feeling 
Development of the West 
Missouri Compromise 



Defeat in Northwest 

Naval victories 

Burning of public buildings 

at Washington 
Treaty of Ghent 
Battle of New Orleans 



Foreign 



Domestic 



Foreign 



Purchase of Florida from Spain 
The "Monroe Doctrine" 
The "Tariff of Abominations" 
Internal improvement 



[272] 



The Administrations 



Andrew Jackson 
Democratic 

I 829- I 83 7 



Martin Van Buren 
Democratic 
1837-184I 



Harrison and Tyler 

Whig 

1841-1845 



James K. Polk 

Democratic 
I 845- I 849 



Taylor and Fillmore 

Whig 

1849-1-853 



Franklin Pierce 
Democratic 
1853-1857 



James Buchanan 
Democratic 
1857-1861 

18 



" Rotation in office " 
Nullification doctrine 
War on bank of the United States 
The first national convention 
Domestic •; Tariff compromise 
The Whig party 
Abolition societies 
Inventions 
Indian wars 

Foreign j France and other foreign nations pay indemnities 

Commercial panic 
The subtreasuries 



Domestic ] 

Foreign < 

Domestic \ The Morse telegraph 

Foreign ] 



Domestic ■] 



Foreign 



Webster-Ashburton treaty 
Annexation of Texas 
Free-soil party 
Gold discovered in California 



The division of 

Oregon 
War with Mexico ' 



f Palo Alto 

General Taylor \ MontTre"^^'^ ^^'""^ 

[ Buena Vista 
General Kearney -j Santa Fe 

iVera Cruz 
Cerro Gordo 
Chapultepec 
Mexico 

John 



General Scott 



The "Forty-niners " 
Slavery compromise 
Social reforms 



C. Fremont < California 



Domestic • 

Foreign | The first W'orld's Fair, at London. 

Domestic 



Foreign ■] 

( 

[ Foreign •} 



Domestic 



World's Fair at New York 

The Kansas-Nebraska bill 

The Know-nothing party 

The Republican party 

Filibusters in Cuba 

Spain refuses to sell Cuba 

Dred Scott decision 

Debates of Lincoln and Douglas 

John Brown at Harper's Ferry 

The Confederate States of America 



[273] 




i86i 

President Lincoln's 
inaugural address 
(March 4) 



Robert Toombs 



Firing on Fort 
Sumter {April 12) 



CHAPTER XLII 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN (SIXTEENTH PRESIDENT, 1861-1865) 
REPUBLICAN 

In his inaugural address, President Lincoln said to 
the South : "The government will not assail you; you 
can have no conflict without being yourselves the 
aggressors." 

So when Jefferson Davis and his cabinet learned that 
President Lincoln had decided to hold Fort Sumter 
and send provisions to the garrison, it was a grave ques- 
tion what to do. The Confederate leader agreed with 
Robert Toombs, his secretary of state, that ' ' firing upon 
the fort would inaugurate a civil war greater than any 
the world had yet seen." 

But Charleston insisted on an attack unless Major 
Anderson would evacuate Fort Sumter. General Beau- 
regard, the Confederate commander of the troops at 
Charleston, demanded the surrender of the fort. Major 
Anderson refused to comply. On April 12, 1861, the 
[274] 



Lincoln's administration 



275 



bombardment began. Two days later Fort Sumter 
surrendered; but from its battered walls arose a united 
North. Douglas, of Illinois, united with Lincoln, of Illi- 
nois. The Northern Democrats united with the North- 
ern Republicans. Again the "Star-spangled Banner" 
became the most popular song. The flag with its thirty- 
four stars became the symbol of the Union which must 
be preserved. 




FORT SUMTER 

When President Lincoln called for seventy-five thou- 
sand troops, three hundred thousand men volunteered. 
Many New York citizens had distrusted Lincoln. They 
feared his election would cause secession, and thus ruin 
commerce. But now, press and people in that State 
rallied to the president's call to arms. The famous 
Seventh Regiment of New York marched proudly down 
Broadway, with the cheers of the 
people following them on their way 
to Washington ; and the alacrity of 
the New York militia was equaled 
by the militia in other States. 

The old Mason and Dixon's line, 
which, in King George's time, had 
been surveyed to settle the disputes 
between Maryland and Pennsyl- 
vania, was verj' nearly the dividing 
line on the slavery question. The 



President Lincoln 
Calls for troops 
(April 15) 



1 763-1 767 
Mason and Dixon's 
line located 





(1793 "- 

PRESIDENT LINCOLN'S WAR CABINET 

Salmon Portland Chase, Montgomery Blair, 

of Ohio, of Maryland, 

Treasury. Postmaster General. 



Caleb B. Smith, 

of Indiana, 

Interior. 



Edwin M. Stanton, 

of the District of Columbia, 

War. 



William H. Seward, 
of New York, 
State. 



Edward Bates, 

of Missouri, 

Attorney General. 



Gideon Welles, 
of Connecticut 
Navy. 



876 



LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



277 



States between the free States and the Gulf States sent 
no troops at the call of the president. They did not wish 
to secede from the Union; all refused to do so, at first, 
but they thought the government did not have the right 
to compel seceding States to come back into the Union, 
and, in the end, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, 
and Arkansas joined the Confederacy rather than take 



Virginia, North 
Carolina, Tennessee 
and Arkansas join 
the Confederacy 




MAP OF THE UNITED STATES IN 1861 

up arms against it. Richmond was made the capital ^g^^ 

city, and when Jefferson Davis called for thirty-five Richmond is made 

... , the capital of the 

thousand volunteers, many times that number poured confederacy 
into Richmond. '■'"'y^°> 

Forty-eight counties in the west part of Virginia had 
few slaves, and remained loyal to the government. They 

formed themselves into a Territory, and were later ad- Marjiand. 

mitted into the Union as West Virginia.^ Maryland •^^l^'^'^y- Missouri. 

o J and Delaware 

and the east part of Tennessee remained loyal. Ken- remain in the union 



1 See pa;^es 101, 306. 



278 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Eleven States versus 
twenty-three States 



The Union and the 

Confederacy 

compared 



The blockade of 
the Southern ports 
declared (April 19) 



tucky, although there were many secessionists in her 
midst, did not forget the teachings of Clay, who had 
compromised so often to preserve the Union. Missouri, 
after many riots, decided to remain in the Union. 
Delaware, though a slave State, did not secede, and, 
after a time, mustered a regiment for Union service, 

And so twenty-three States were numbered in the 
Union and eleven in the Confederacy. There were 
about twenty-three million people in the one, and 
about eight million in the other, of whom nearly half 
were slaves. 

The Union had the regular army and navy at com- 
mand. It had credit and standing abroad. Its fac- 
tories, farms, and workshops could supply its needs for 
a long war. The Confederacy was like one vast plan- 
tation, dependent on foreign markets for everything 
except the simplest food. But the rpen of the South 
were trained to the use of arms from infancy, and were 
united firmly together in defense of their cause. " Did 
all Great Britain subdue our ancestors in seventeen hun- 
dred and seventy-six! " they cried. 

When President Lincoln declared a blockade of 
Southern ports so that no ships might go in or out, the 
Confederacy felt sure that Great Britain would break 
it, because the blockade meant a cotton famine. Her 
mills and factories would soon stand still, and, besides, 
she would lose an immense market for her manufactured 
goods. 

But the Union declared that England had emanci- 
pated her own slaves ; she had scoured the seas for 
years to prevent the slave traffic on the coast of Africa, 
and could not recognize the Confederacy whose corner 
stone was slavery. Had not the British press long 
reproached the United States for its system of slavery ^ 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 



279 



Charles Francis 
Adams, minister to 
the court of St. JamcS 




WINFIELD SCOTT 

1786-1866 



Fohn Bright and 
Richard Cobden 
advocate the cause 
of freedom 



European powers 
grant belligerent 
rights to the 
Confederacy 



1861 



Charles Francis Adams, whose father and grand- 
father had been ministers to England, was sent there to 
plead the cause of liberty. The masses in Great Britain 
sided with the North. 

The weavers of Lancashire said they 
would starve rather than join in the 
cry against the American Union. 

John Bright and Richard Cobden, 
the leaders of the Liberals in Parlia- 
ment, strongly advocated the cause of 
freedom. But the manufacturers 
were in favor of the Southern re- 
public. At last, Great Britain rec- 
ognized the Confederacy as a belligerent 
power, but declared neutrality. France and 
other nations followed her example. This gave the Con- 
federacy an equal war footing with the United States; 

Special session of 

and Confederate cruisers had an equal right to enter congress at 
foreign harbors under the new flag. Washington (juiy 4) 

Early in July, Congress appropriated five hun 
dred million dollars for war expenses, and au- 
thorized President Lincoln to call out five hun- 
dred thousand volunteers. There were at that 
time nearly two hundred thousand Union sol- 
diers under arms. General Winfield Scott 
commanded the Union army, one division of 
which, under General Irwin Mc Dowell, 
waited at Washington^ for orders; another, 
under General George B. Mc Clellan, was sta- 
tioned in western Virginia to watch the Confed- 
erate army under General Beauregard near Manas 
sas Junction; another, under General Robert Patterson, 
stood guard near Harper's Ferry to prevent Confederate 
General Joseph E. Johnston from joining his forces with 




G. T. 



BEAUREGARD 
1818-1893 

General Winfield 
Scott in command 
of the Union army 



•See map page 285. 



28o 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Defeat of the Union 
• army at Manassas 
near Bull Run Creek 
(July ai) 



Cotton famine in 
Great Britain 



Mason and Slidell 
seized on the Trent 
(November 8) 



those of Beauregard; and still another, placed in No- 
vember under General Henry Halleck, watched beyond 
the Alleghanies as far west as California. 

There were several skirmishes in western Virginia in 
which the Federals were generally victorious. Then 
Mc Dowell moved from Washington toward Richmond. 

At Manassas Junction, on Bull Run Creek, Va. , his 
forces were badly defeated by the Confederate army 
under Beauregard, assisted by Johnston with two bri- 
gades, in command of Kirby Smith and Jubal Early. 
The North was in dismay. The South was jubilant. 
Brave and fearless themselves, the Confederates said 
the ' ' Yankees would back up to the North Pole before 
they would fight again." 

Meantime across the sea there was a cotton famine. 
The shops were closed and the spindles were silent; the 
cotton and the tobacco crops in the seceding States were 
gathered; but the blockade of President Lincoln stood 
in the way of commerce. Great Britain and France, 
by recognizing the independence of the South, might 
break the blockade, and secure a market for their wares, 
free from the burdensome tariff, which the North de- 
manded. The Confederacy resolved to again seek for- 
eign aid. And so, under cover of night, a ship sailed 
out of Charleston harbor, bearing James M. Mason and 
John Slidell, who were commissioned to urge armed 
intervention. At Havana, the men boarded the British 
steamer Trent, and were soon off for England and 
France. But Captain Wilkes trimmed the sails of a 
United States sloop-of-war, overhauled the Trent in the 
Bermuda Channel, and demanded the envoys. They 
were surrendered. 

The Confederacy rejoiced at this act. Surely Great 
Britain would now declare war. Impressment on board 



LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



281 




GEORGE BRINTON MC CLELLAM 
1826-1885 



of neutral vessels had caused the War of 18 12. British impressment on a 

troops and cruisers were, indeed, sent to Canada to "^"'"'''"^^' 

prepare for war. But the seizure on the Trent had been 

made without proper authority. On demand of 

the British government, Mason and Slidell were 

released, and friendly relations between Great 

Britain and the United States continued. 

The South now began to despair of foreign aid. 
More recruits were called for, and the Con- 
federate army gathered in larger numbers at 
Richmond. 

In the North, General Mc Clellan was given 
command of the troops east of the Ohio, and 
organized the "Army of the Potomac" at 
Washington. Soon after, on the retirement of 
Scott, Mc Clellan was made commander in chief of all The Army of the 
the armies of the United States. ^°'°'"^' 

In the West General Halleck, with headquarters at 
St. Louis, had full command, with General Don Carlos 
Buell commanding what came to be called 
the "Army of the Ohio;" and General 
Ulysses S. Grant, the "Army of the Ten- 
nessee." 

General Joseph E. Johnston was com- General Joseph e. 
mander in chief of the Confederate ar- -'°'"'^'°° 
mies, General Albert Sidney Johnston 
commanding the Confederate army in 
the West, with General Beauregard in 
charge of the defenses of the Mississippi. 
Halleck determined to drive the Con- 
federates from Kentucky; and in January a division of 
Buell's army under General George H. Thomas, fought 
a battle at Mill Spring, Ky., and drove the Confederates Battle of Miuspnng 
from that place into Tennessee. (January 19) 




YSSES SIMPSON GRANT 
1822-1885 



282 



THE CIVIL WAR 




ANDREW HULL FOOTE 

1806-1863 



Capture of Fort 
Henry (February 6) 
and Fort Donelson 
(February i6) 



Grant moved from Cairo, 111., up the Tennessee 
River to attack Ft. Henry. But before he could 
reach it. Commodore Andrew H. Foote had cap- 
tured the fort with his j^unboats. The Con- 
federates then strengthened Ft. Donelson, twelve 
miles away on the Cumberland. Grant's army 
invested the fort. After three days of hard 
fighting, General Simon B. Buckner, com- 
mander of the fort, surrendered with fifteen 
thousand men. 
The capture of Forts Donelson and Henry, by 
giving the Federals control of the Tennessee and 
the Cumberland, pushed the whole Confederate line out 
of Kentucky. Nashville, the capital of Tennessee, was 
soon occupied by Federal troops, and President Lincoln 
appointed Andrew Johnson military governor of that 
State. 

The Confederates fell back to Corinth in northern 
Mississippi. Grant followed them, and was surprised 
shiioh, or Pittsburg by Albert S. Johnston at §hiloh Church near Pittsburg 
Landing. After terrible fighting, the Union troops re- 
treated. 

The following morning Generals Buell and Lew Wal- 
lace brought re-enforcements. The battle com- 
menced again. The Confederate Johnston was 
killed; Beauregard, who succeeded him in 
command, retreated to Corinth, which was 
besieged and captured by Halleck; luka was 
occupied by a division of Grant's army under 
Rosecrans, who soon after repulsed Price at 
Corinth; and while the Union forces were 
thus pushing their way past the in- 
trenchments in Kentucky and Tennessee, 
DAVID GLASGOW FARRAGUT gunboats uttdei Foote cleared the Mississippi 

1801-1870 



Landing (April 6, 7) 

Corinth (May 30) 
luka (September 19) 




LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



283 



as far south as Vicksburg, which seemed quite impreg- 
nable. 

Meantime Commodore David G. Farragut, with a 
fleet of forty vessels, carrying an army under command 
of General Benjamin F. Butler, forced his way up the 
Mississippi in the midst of tremendous firing from the 
forts on its banks. New Orleans surrendered. Far- 
ragut soon gained control of the Mississippi except at 
Vicksburg and Port Hudson. Between these two forts 
the Confederates were supplied with provisions from 
the country west of the Mississippi. 

Meanwhile in the East 
the Confederate ship Mcr- 
rimac destroyed two United 
States frigates, and was 
waiting in Hampton Roads, 
near Norfolk, to destroy 
three others, and move on 
to Washington, when the 
little Monitor, invented by 
John Ericsson, of screw- 
propeller fame, attacked 
the Merrimac. The Moni- 
tor was a flat vessel with a revolving iron cylinder amid- 
ships, carrying two enormous guns. When the ' ' cheese 
box on a raft," steamed up the bay, it received but little 
attention. But the ironclad Merrimac was soon driven 
to shelter from its battering balls, and the danger at 
Washington was over. 

Both armies in the East were guarding their capitals. 
General Joseph E. Johnston expected an attack on 
Richmond by way of the Chesapeake, but General Mc- 
Clellan hesitated so long about leaving Washington that 
the people in the North laughingly said, as they met 



New Orleans 
surrenders 

(April 85) 




The Monitor and 
the Merrimac 
( March 9) 



284 



THE CIVIL WAR 



The peninsular 
campaign 



in the streets, "All quiet along^the Potomac! " The 
expense of the standing army was enormous. The loyal 
North began to get impatient. But at length the East- 
ern armies began fighting on the peninsula between the 
James and the York Rivers. 




Vorktown taken 
(May 4) 

Williamsburg 
(May 5) 



MONITOR 

Mc Clellan, expecting Mc Dowell to meet him at Rich- 
mond by way of Fredericksburg, left Washington, and 
laid siege to Yorktown in April. The Confederates fell 
back from Yorktown and Williamsburg toward Richmond, 
with Mc Clellan in pursuit. While the Union troops 
were waiting for aid from Mc Dowell, General Joseph E. 

Fair Oaks ■•■ • ■ rnj/^iii 

(May 31 to June i) Johnston attacked a division of Mc Clellan s army at 

. Fair Oaks. Johnston was wounded, and his 

army retreated toward Richmond. Mean- 
while General Mc Dowell, while on his way 
from Washington to Richmond, was 
driven northward out of the Shenan- 
doah valley by General T. J. Jack- 
son. After Johnston was 
wounded. General Robert 
E. Lee took command of 
the army of Northern Vir- 
ginia. Lee was a skilful 
leader, and soon showed 
his West Point training. 
He attacked Mc Clellan 




LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 



285 



and fought the Seven Days' battles, resulting in the 
retreat of the Union army to Harrison's Landing on the 
James. 

President Lincoln now made a new levy of troops. 
The Union Army of Virginia was organized, stretching 
along the Rappahannock and Rapidan Rivers, with Gen- 
eral Pope in com- 
mand. Halleck 
was called from 
the West, and 
made commander 
of all the Union 
armies. Mc Clel- 
lan was called to 
Washington with 
the Army of the 
Potomac, and Pop 
moving on toward Rich- 
mond, when his west di- 
vision, under General N. P. 
Banks, was attacked by 
Jackson at Cedar Moun- 
tain, and defeated. The 
united armies of Lee and 
Jackson engaged at Bull 
Run with Pope, who re- 
treated to Washington, where his army was united with 
that of Mc Clellan. Lee crossed the Potomac into 
Maryland. Mc Clellan attacked him at Antietam Creek. 
Neither could claim victory after this terrible engage- 
ment. 

Lee recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. Mc Clellan 
followed, but so slowly that the command of his troops 
was taken from him, and given to General Ambrose E. 



1862 

Seven Days' battles 
(June 25 tojuly i^ 




Cedar Mountain 

(August 9) 



The second battle 
of "Bull Run" 
(August 28-30) 



Antietam 

(September 17) 



286 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Fredericksburg 
(December 13) 



The close ot itbz 




ROBERT E. LEE 

1807-1870 



1862 

Lincoln's first 

emancipation 

proclamation 

(September 22) 




AMBROSE E. BURNSIDE 
1824-1881 



Negroes are 
"contraband "of war 



Burnside. Burnside was moving on toward Richmond 
when he was defeated with great loss at Fredericks- 
burg, by Generals Lee and Jackson. The command 
of Burnside's army was then given to ^i^^^'^^^ 
General Joseph Hooker, who went W ^^^^^ 
into winter quarters. 

At the close of 1862, almost every 
fortification on the Mississippi had 
been taken by the Union forces, and 
their lines advanced across Tennes- 
see, Missouri, and Arkansas as far 
south as the Arkansas River, while 
the situation in the East was about 
the same as in the beginning. The 
blockade on the coast was now stricter 
than ever, and not even medicine could be smuggled 
to the Southern ports. 

Meantime, after the battle of Antietam, President 
Lincoln issued his first emancipation proclamation, 
wherein he gave the seceded States one hundred 
days to be legally represented in the Congress 
of the United States. By sending delegates 
they would show they were not in rebellion 
= against the government. At the end of that 
I time, those not so represented should be 
treated as rebels, and their slaves set free. 

This was a war measure ; the slaves were 
considered "contraband" of war, like gun- 
powder, or any other destructive agent; for 
by their forced labor in shop and field and fort 
building the negroes helped those who defied the 
federal government. President Lincoln did not consider 
that the Southern States were out of the Union, and 
the flag on the capitol still kept its thirty-four stars. 



LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



287 



To help pay the expenses of the war which cost some- United states 
times more than two milhon dollars a day, Congress ton^""^^ °°'^' *° 
authorized the issue and circulation of United States 
notes. " Greenbacks " were notes bearing no interest. 
They were made legal tender in payment of public and 
private debts, except duties on imports and interest on 
the public debt. Bonds were notes bearing interest at 
the rate of five, six, or seven per cent, for a speci- ^ ^ 

National banks 

ficd period of years. A national banking system was established 
established which increased the sale of these 
bonds. Congress created the office of "comp- 
troller of the currency " as a bureau in the de- 
partment of the treasury. The comptroller was 
authorized to issue charters to national banks. 
These banks invested all of their required 
capital in United States bonds. Circulating 
notes to the amount of fifty per cent, of 
their bonds were furnished to the banks, to be 
issued by them as money. The interest on the 
bonds was paid to the banks in gold by the gov- 
ernment. 

The South was in great financial distress. Its war Distress in the Soutk • 
debts were paid in scrip which could only be redeemed 
in case of independence, and the value of the paper 
was less with every defeat. Taxes on the people were 
heavy. Credit was not yet good enough to secure a 
loan from Europe, and cotton and other produce could 
not be sold on account of the blockade. The Confed- 
erate army needed clothing and food. " If General Lee 
wants rations, let him go and get them in Pennsyl- 
vania," wrote the Confederate commissary general. 
And "On to the North" was the cry at Richmond. 




JOSEPH HOOKER 
1814-1879 



"On to the North' 
for booty 



CHAPTER XLIII 




1863 

The final 
emancipation 
proclamation 
(January i) 



Union forces 
defeated at 
Chancellorsville, Va. 
{May 1-4) 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN (1861-1865) (Continued) 
REPUBLICAN 

O seceding State sent representatives to 
Congress. Not one paid heed to Presi- 
dent Lincoln's first emancipation procla- 
mation. When, on January i, the hun- 
dred-days' limit for the representation 
in Congress was over, the president is- 
sued his final proclamation of emanci- 
pation. The negroes in the seceding 
States were thus considered freedmen, 
and, as fast as the Union army gained 
control in the South, their masters were obliged to give 
them up. The rage of the Confederates was without 
bounds. They said that Lincoln was a dictator, greater 
even than Louis Napoleon. But the North replied 
that the President's authority rested on a loyal peo- 
ple, while that of the Emperor of France depended 
on his army. 

In May, by skilful leadership. Generals 
Lee and Jackson defeated the Union army 
under General Joseph Hooker at Chan- 
cellorsville. General Jackson, whose 
bravery at Bull Run had won him the 
name of "Stonewall," was mortally 
wounded by one of his own men, 
through mistake. Lee said he had 
lost his right arm in losing Stone- 
wall Jackson. 

In June, Lee hurried across the 
[288J 




THOMAS JONATHAN JACKSON 
1824-1863 



LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



289 




Potomac and entered 
Pennsylvania. He was 
met at Gettysburg by 
General George G. 
Meade, now in command 
of the Army of the Poto- 
mac instead of Hooker. 
The Union army mar- 
shaled on a chain of hills 
called Cemetery Ridge, 
and the Confederate army faced them on Seminary 
Ridge. North of them lay the town of Gettysburg. 
At sunset, on the third day of the battle, Lee's army 
was totally defeated. He recrossed the Potomac dw- 
ing the night. The battle of Gettysburg was one ol 
the most terrible in history. Over fifty thousand ' ' boys 
in blue" and "boys in gray" were killed, wounded, 
or missing. Meade followed Lee, and both armies 
lay facing each other on op- 
posite banks of the Rapidan, 
till General Grant came to 
take command of the Army 
of the Potomac. 

Meantime, in the West, 
General Grant at Holly 
Springs, in northern Missis- 
sippi, planned to take Vicks- 
burg. A Confederate army 
under Pemberton guarded 
that important point. Grant 
marched to Memphis, on the 
east bank of the Mississippi, 
and sailed down the river 
with fifty thousand men. He 
«9 



Gettysburg 
(July 1-3) 




The siege of 
Vicksburg 



290 



THE CIVIL WAR 




JOSEPH E 

1807- 

Port Gibson 

(May i) 
Raymond 
Jackson (May 14) 
Champion Hills 

(May 16) 
Big Black River 

(May 17) 
Vicksburg (July 4) 



Port Hudson 
(July 9) 



landed a few miles above Vicksburg. The great forti- 
fication stood opposite a peninsula of the Mississippi. 
It was inaccessible from the north because of the Yazoo 
River, with its high bluffs, and a dense forest. 

Grant planned to get below the city by cutting a 
canal across the peninsula. Thousands of men 
worked for weeks at the canal, but when it was 
about finished, the river overflowed its banks and 
ruined the work. Grant then boldly rushed Por- 
ter's gunboats past the batteries at Vicksburg 
during the night, and moved his army along 
the west bank to a landing below the city. 
Here he crossed to the east bank, and hasten- 
ing forward, defeated Pemberton at Port Gibson, 
captured Raymond, and drove out of Jackson Gen- 
eral Joseph E. Johnston, who was hurrying to Pem- 
berton's aid; then turning west, he defeated Pemberton 
at Champion Hills and Big Black River. Grant now sur- 
rounded and invested Vicksburg. His assaults on the 
fortifications were repulsed, but after a siege of six 
weeks, this "Gibraltar of the Confeder- 
acy" surrendered with thirty thousand 
prisoners on the fourth of July, the day 
after Meade's victory at Gettysburg. 
Port Hudson, lower down the river, 
besieged by Farragut's fleet and a 
land force under General .Banks, 
surrendered a few days later, and, 
in the words of Lincoln, "The 
Father of Waters again flowed un- 
vexed to the sea. " Union .gunboats 
patroled the river, and the supplies of grain and cattle 
from Texas and Arkansas were thus shut off from the 
Confederate armies of the East. 




WILLIAM STARKE ROSECRANS 
1819-1893 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 29 1 

General Rosecrans, after his brilliant victories at Murfreesboro 
luka and Corinth, had been given command of Buell's ^10/2,' 1863) 
Army of the Cumberland at Nashville. After defeating 
Braxton Bragg in a terrible battle at Murfreesboro, he ^g^ 

drove Bragg from Chattanooga; but as he followed in chickamauga 
pursuit, he was defeated by the Confederate general in a (September 19, 20) 
terrible battle at Chickamauga Creek, in which nearly 
forty thousand were killed or wounded, Rosecrans's 
army withdrew to Chattanooga, General George H. 
Thomas, the "Rock of Chickamauga," covering their 
retreat. Bragg then began a stubborn siege to starve 
the Union army into surrendering. Chattanooga lay 
on the south bank of the Tennessee where that 
river flows nearly due west. Lookout Mountain, 
Missionary Ridge, and Raccoon Mountain, in full 
view of seven Southern States, held their heads 
defiantly over the town; and all the passes were 
guarded. President Lincoln had by this time 
unbounded confidence in the hero of Vicks- 
burg, and put the armies in the West under his 
command. In October, Grant summoned his le- geo. h. thomas 

, , . Ill 1 i 1816-1870 

gions about him to rescue the beleaguered army at 
Chattanooga. Hooker from the Army of the Potomac, Chattanooga 
with re-enforcements from the Western armies, fought 
his way up Lookout Mountain. Bragg's division re- Lookout Moi»itain 
treated from the heights. Part of the fighting was (November24) 
carried on at so great an elevation that the engage- 
ment on Lookout Mountain is often called ' ' the battle 
above the clouds." 

The next day Sherman, with Thomas and Sheridan, Missionary Ridge 
engaged Bragg at Missionary Ridge. The Confederate °''"" ^'^''^ 
army retreated to Dalton, and Bragg gave up his com- The dose of 1863 
mand to Joseph E. Johnston. Soon after, both armies 
went into winter quarters. At the close of 1863, Geor- 




Lincoln dedicates 
the national 
cemetery at 
Gettysburg 

(November ig) 



• Dallas 



THE CIVIL WAR 

gia, Alabama, the Carolinas, and Virginia 
were all that were left to the Confederates. 
While the battle was raging about Chat- 
tanooga, President Lincoln delivered a won- 
derful speech at the dedication of the bat- 
tlefield of Gettysburg for a national ceme- 
Fourscore and seven years ago," 
he said, "our fathers brought 
forth on this continent a new 
nation, conceived in Hberty, and 
dedicated to the proposition that 
all men were created equal. Now 
we are engaged in a great civil 
war, testing whether that nation, 
or any other nation so con- 
ceived and dedicated, can 
long endure. We have met 
on a great battlefield of that 
war. We have come to 
dedicate a portion of that field as a final resting place 
for those who here gave their lives that that nation 
might live. It is altogether fitting and proper that 
we should do this. But, in a larger sense, we can 
not dedicate, we can not consecrate, we can not hal- 
low this ground. The brave men, living and dead, 
who struggled here have consecrated it far above our poor 
power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor 
long remember, what we say here, but it can never forget 
what they did here. It is for us, the living, rather to be 
dedicated here to the unfinished work which they who 
fought here have thus far so nobly advanced. It is 
rather for us to be here dedicated to the great task re- 
maining before us; that from these honored dead we take 
increased devotion to that cause for which they gave the 





LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



293 




last lull measure of devotion; that we here highly re- 
solve that these dead shall not have died in vain; that 
this nation, under God, shall have a new birth of free- 
dom, and that government of the people, by the peo- 
ple, for the people, shall not perish from the earth 

When spring opened, General Lee, with the 
Army of Northern Virginia, was still on the 
south bank of the Rapidan, protecting Richmond; 
General Meade and the Army of the Potomac 
lay facing him on the opposite bank. In the 
West General Johnston, who had succeeded 
Bragg in command of the Confederate army, 
was at Dalton in northwestern Georgia, 
guarding the approaches to Atlanta, the railroad 
center of the South. 

General Grant had now been made lieutenant general uiysses s. Gram 
in command of the Union armies. Only George Wash- 
ington and Winfield Scott had held this title. Grant 
left to Sherman the task of uniting at Chattanooga all 
the western armies east of the Mississippi to drive John- 
ston from the mountains to the open country where he 
might be met in battle. 

It was agreed that the armies of Grant and Sherman 
should both begin operations on the same day, the fourth 
of May, so that neither Confederate army might have 
opportunity to send aid to the other. 

Grant himself hastened with Sheridan to the Army of 
the Potomac, where Meade was still in command on the 
north bank of the Rapidan. Grant's plan was to take 
Richmond. He sent General Butler up the James to 
attack the city from the south. Generals Sigel and Hun- 
ter up the Shenandoah valley to approach Richmond 
from the west, while he was to advance to the city from 
the north. 



GEORGE GORDON MEADE 
1815-1872 



lieutenant general 
of the United States 

army (March) 



294 



THE CIVIL WAR 



The battle of the 
Wilderness 

(May s, 6) 



Spottsylvania 
and Cold Harbor 
(May 8-12) 



Grant crosses 
the James 





PHILIP H. SHERIDAN 
1831-1888 



Grant set out from Culpepper Courthouse, and crossed 
the Rapidan. He was met by Lee in the "Wilder- 
ness," a country of forests and thickets, and for two 
days battle raged incessantly. 
Lee fought unsuccessfully at 
Spottsylvania Courthouse, but 
was victorious at Cold Har- 
bor. Grant declared he 
would fight it out on that line 
if it took him all summer, and 
pushed slowly southward. 
When Grant reached the 
Chickahominy River, he had 
lost about sixty thousand 
men. Lee had lost about 
half that number. 

The defenses on the north 
of Richmond were too strong to be taken, and Grant 
moved across the James to attack the city from the 
south. But just beyond the river were the fortifications 
of Petersburg, twenty miles from Richmond. Here 
Lee's army had taken position. Both armies kept 
fortifying themselves more and more strongly; 
and, during the winter, each tried to get the 
advantage. 

Meantime, east of Richmond, Butler had 
been cooped up on a peninsula in the James. 
West of Richmond, Sigel had been de- 
feated by General John C. Breckinridge, 
and Hunter forced to retreat beyond the Al- 
eghany Mountains. The Shenandoah valley 
'88 was thus unprotected. Lee sent General Early 

through Maryland to attack Washington. But the passes 
to the capital were too well guarded; and while Early 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATI01^I 



295 




(October ig) 



Sheridan's ride 



JOHN ALEXANDER LOGAN 
1826-1886 



was encamped in the valley, Sheridan defeated him at Winchester 
Winchester. Early surprised the pursuing Union army cedJcrr^k" '^ 
at Cedar Creek, and put it to rout, while Sheridan was 
absent at Winchester, about twenty miles 
away. Sheridan heard the cannonad 
ing- with its "terrible grumble, and 
rumble, and roar, telling the battle 
was on once more;" he mounted his 
horse, and arrived in time to rally 
his men, and change defeat to 
victory. 

In the West, Sherman in su- 
preme command of the Army of 
the Cumberland, numbering almost . 
a hundred thousand men, and compris- 
ing the Army of the Cumberland, commanded by George 
H. Thomas, the Army of the Tennessee, by James B. 
Mc Pherson, and the Army of the Ohio, by John M. 
Schofield, drove Joseph E. Johnston, with an army of 
about sixty thousand, slowly back from Dalton through 
the mountains to Atlanta. 

There were battles at Resaca and Dallas, in which Caiton (May 4) 
Sherman was victorious, and at Kenesaw Mountain, 
where he was badly defeated by Johnston. About 
thirty-five thousand were killed or wounded in these bat- 
tles among the hills of Georgia. Jefferson Davis now 
removed the cautious Johnston from command, 
and appointed the rash General J. B. Hood 
in his place. Hood was 
beaten in three engage- 
ments by Sherman. In 
one of these General 
Mc Pherson was killed, 
and General John A. 



Resaca 

(May 14,15) 
Dallas (May -'S^S) 
Kenesaw Mountain 
(June 27) 




296 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Atlanta taken 
(September 2) 



Nashville 
(December 15, 16 

Sherman's march 
to the sea 
(November 16 to 
December 13 




W. T. SHERMAN 

1820-1891 



18C4 
The Red River 
expedition 



Cavalry raids 



Blockade runners 



Logan succeecied him in command of the Army of the 
Tennessee for the remainder of the battle, when he 
was succeeded by General O. O. Howard. Hood was 
driven out of Atlanta. He then started for the North, 
crossed the Tennessee, and, after a desperate engage- 
ment with Schofield at Franklin, was attacked by 
Thomas at Nashville, and routed completely. Thus the 
Confederate army of the West went to pieces, and the 
Gulf States were without defense. 

Sherman had planned for this result. Meantime he 
burned Atlanta, and then tearing down telegraph 
wires as he went that they might not convey the 
news of his movements, and destroying railroads 
and all that might sustain an army, he marched 
in four great columns, covering sixty miles of 
country, to Savannah, three hundred miles away. 
Sherman stormed Fort McAlister, and entered 
the city just before Christmas. He had cut 
the eastern part of the Confederacy in two, 
and he remained in winter quarters at Savan- 
nah, while Lee and Grant were watching each 
other on the James. 

Now, while the great armies were lighting, there had 
been many smaller engagements. An expedition under 
General Banks was sent through northwestern Louis- 
iana and up the Red River; but the campaign was a 
failure, and the troops returned to New Orleans. The 
cavalry on both sides made extended raids through the 
country. Confederate gunboats in the harbors and 
ironclads on the Gulf of Mexico struggled to break the 
blockade, which shut off the South from supplies. 
Swift blockade runners built low, and painted dull drab, 
were secured in the West Indies. On dark nights they 
ran with provisions into port at Wilmington, N. C. , and 



LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



297 



sped away again laden with cotton. Over fifteen hun- 
dred of these blockade runners were captured during 
the war. 

Confederate privateers cruised in the high seas to de- Privateers 
stroy the commerce of the North. The Sumter cap- 
tured many merchantmen, and a fleet of cruisers, built Cruisers 
in England, lay in wait for American vessels. Off the The AVar^ar^.- sinks 

r T^ ITT- 1 • r^ 11 ^^^ Alabatna 

coast of France, the Union ship Kearsargc sunk the (june 19) 




ELECTION OF 1864 

Steamship Alabama, which, under a Confederate cap- 
tain, had long preyed upon Northern merchantmen. 
The Confederate cruiser Florida was unlawfully seized 
in a neutral port, and the Georgia was captured at 
Lisbon. 

At the close of 1864 the conflict in the West was con- 
cluded. General Lee commanded the only organized 
Confederate army. He could not help the Gulf States, 
for he needed his men to defend Richmond against Grant, 
who, intrenched near Petersburg, watched the Confeder- 



298 



THE CIVIL WAR 



National conventions 



Abraham Lincoln 
re-elected 



1865 
Fort Fisher and 
Wilmington 
(January 15) 



Sherman occupies 
Columbia 

(February 17) 



Charleston 

(February 18) 



" In God we trust" 
(March 3) 

Lincoln inaugurated 
(March 4) 



ate capital day and night. Sherman, at Savannah, was 
waiting to advance to Virginia, and hold Lee in check 
while Grant might give the final stroke of the war. 

Meantime the States not in rebellion met in national 
conventions. Those who wanted "peace at any price" 
nominated George B. McClellan; those, both Democrats 
and Republicans, who were determined to maintain the 
Union "at any cost," Abraham Lincoln; those who 
wished a more vigorous policy in liberating the slaves, 
John C. Fremont. Fremont withdrew, and Lincoln 
was re-elected president, with Andrew Johnson, of 
Tennessee, vice-president. 

In January, Admiral David D. Porter and a division 
of Grant's army, under General A. S. Terry, captured 
Fort Fisher and Wilmington, N. C., thus shutting off 
the blockade runners that had supplied Lee's army with 
food. 

In February, Sherman left Savannah, and marched 
toward Columbia. Every white man in South Carolina, 
from sixteen to sixty, was called upon to defend the 
capital of his State; but the mighty army of Sherman 
occupied Columbia. The Confederates had set the torch 
to their warehouses, and retreated to join the hastily 
collected army under Johnston and Beauregard in North 
Carolina. Charleston was captured by a detachment of 
Union troops, and the stars and stripes were set again 
on Fort Sumter. 

On the third of March, Congress ordered that "In 
God We Trust" be placed upon the larger coin of the 
nation as we see it to-day. On the fourth of March, 
Lincoln said in his inaugural address : • ' With malice 
toward none, with charity for all; with firmness in the 
right as God gives us to see the right, let us strive on to 
finish the work we are in, to bind up the nation's wounds, 



LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 299 

to care for him who shall have borne the battle and for 
his widow and orphans, and to do all things which may 
achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace among our- 
selves and with all nations." 

Peace was near at hand. Sherman was met in North 
Carolina by Johnston with an army of forty thousand 
men, made up of the scattered forces of the western Averysbcro 
armies and the garrisons from the fallen cities on the ^ieJ^Zle '^^ 
coast. Sherman defeated Johnston at Averysbcro and (March 18) 
Bentonville, and ended his great march at Goldsboro, 
where he united his army with the armies of 
Schofield and Terry. 

Meantime Sheridan with his cavalry moved 
up the Shenandoah valley, and joined Grant 
near Petersburg. Grant advanced his whole 
line, a hundred thousand strong, and burst 
through Lee's intrenchments. Lee re- 
treated westward during the night. Peters- 
burg and Richmond were taken by the Union ^^^,^ ^,^^'^ 'p^^^^^ 
troops. Jefferson Davis and his cabinet fled 18311391 
from their capital, and escaped to North Carolina. 
Grant pursued Lee; Sheridan passed beyond him, and Petersburg (April 2) 
cut off retreat. The Confederates were half st-arved "^ """^ ^"' 
and worn out; their currency had so depreciated that the 
war department paid a thousand dollars for a pair of 
boots; and a month's pay for a soldier would not buy a 
ration of food. 

General Lee accepted defeat, and, on April 9, sur- General Lee 
rendered the shattered remnant of his army, num- ^""^^"aphu'P'^"^ 
bering twenty-six thousand men, to General Grant, at 
Appomattox Courthouse. On promise not to bear arms 
against the United States, the Confederates were General Johnston 
allowed to disband, and to keep their horses for their *""^°Aprii26) 
plows. A few days later at Raleigh General Johnston 




300 THE CIVIL WAR 

surrendered to Sherman. Jefferson Davis was captured 
in Georgia, and imprisoned at Fortress Monroe on the 
charge of treason. Two years later he was released 
without trial. 

Such are the rude outlines of the most terrible civil 
war in the history of the world. A more complete 
account ' of the conflict and of the great generals who 
led armies to defeat or victory should be read by every 
student. 
The armies of Grant Whcu the war was ovcr, the Confederate soldiers 
and Sherman march j-g^^uj-^ed to their ruiucd homes. The armies of Grant 

in review at 

Washington and Sheiman, about one hundred and fifty thousand 

( ay 23,34) strong, marched to music through the streets of Wash- 
ington City. Then they separated to return to their 
own States. Here they were reviewed by their gov- 
ernors, and then, except the standing army of fifty thou- 
sand, the Federal troops, numbering in all about a mil- 
lion men, disbanded to go to their homes. The tattered 
flag of Fort Sumter was placed on the flagstaff of the 
fortification by its old commander, and thus the flag of 
the Union instead of the palmetto of South Carolina 
fioated again over the government buildings in Charles- 
ton harbor. 

Over two million men served in the Union army, and 
Estimated loss in about a milHou in the Confederate army. About three 
hundred thousand, on each side, lay under the sod. All 
this blood had been shed to determine whether the 
nation should be kept one and undivided. Instead of 
two nations, with standing armies, ready to destroy each 
other like the nations of Europe, we are still the united 
nation which Washington, Jackson, and other great 
patriots struggled to establish and maintain. 

*" Battles and Leaders of the Civil War," published by the Century 
Company, gives an excellent account of the principal engagements. 



LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 3OI 

Slavery caused the war, but let us remember that the 
war was not waged by the government to abolish slav- 
ery in the States. Lincoln himself agreed that slavery 
in the States was protected by the Constitution. He 
depended on the slow growth of public opinion to abol- 
ish it. The question at issue was whether the flag 
should be torn asunder. From the time of Jefferson, 
some had believed that a State had the right to pass 
judgment on the acts of Congress, and to nullify those 
which did not seem constitutional. From this stand- 
point it was easy to believe that each State was sover- 
eign in itself, and had the right to withdraw from the 
Union. In the South, as well as in the North, men 
stood by their convictions, and fought with all their might 

to defend them. 

1865 
The rejoicing over the close of the rebellion was turned The assassination o( 
into deepest grief by the assassination of President Lin- P^^'dent Lincoln 

^ " •' (April 14) 

coin. On the evening of the fifth day after Lee's sur- 
render, while the great man sat in Ford's theater, in 
Washington, John Wilkes Booth, a young actor, crept 
behind him, and, crying " Sic semper tyrannis''' (Thus 
may it ever be to tyrants), shot him through the brain. • 

In the excitement of the moment no one seized the 
slayer. But the American flag, draped in front of the 
president's box, wrapped itself about his feet as he 
fled, and threw him to the floor. Booth escaped with The fate of John 
a broken leg. He was afterward shot in a barn by sol- ^'"'" ^°°*'' 
diers attempting to capture him. Four of his accom- 
plices were hanged. On the same night that Lincoln 
fell, William H. Seward, secretary of state, was severely 
stabbed in his own house. 

Within three hours after Lincoln breathed his last, Andrewjohnson 
Andrew Johnson, the vice-president, was sworn into "^^'""^"^^'^f'^^^^ 

(April 15/ 

office as chief executive of the United States. 







( 


Fort Sumter captured by the Confederates 






1 


Eleven States versus twenty-t'uree States 










Blockade of Southern ports 

Battle of Bull Run 

Mill Spring 

Forts Henry and Donelson 

Pittsburg Landing 

Corinth 

New Orleans 

The Monitor and the Merrimac 

Yorktown 

Williamsburg 

Seven Pines 

Seven Days' battles 

Cedar Mountain 

The second battle of Bull Run 

Fredericksburg 

Negroes made contraband of war 




IT) 






National banks established 




00 






Emancipation Proclamation 




1 
00 


00 




Chancellorsville 
Gettysburg 






7 




Port Gibson 
Raymond 




pi 


00 




Jackson 




< 


c 


o 


Champion Hills 




^ 


•S 


«^ 


Vicksburg 




jj 


2 


s • 


Port Hudson 




> 


in C 


5 


Chickamauga 







II ■ 




Chattanooga 




w ■ 




Lincoln's dedication of Gettysburg Cemetery 




s 

H 


< & 




Battle of the Wilderness 




b 


^ Cm 




Spottsylvania 




O 


"o 




Winchester 




K 


u 

C 




Cedar Creek 




u 
o 


;j 




Dalton 






s 




Resaca 










Dallas 




X 


rt 




Kenesaw Mountain 




H 


J3 
< 




Atlanta 

Nashville 

Sherman's march to the sea 




> 


I 


a 


The Red River expedition 

The Kearsarge and the Alabama 

Lincoln re-elected 

Fort Fisher and Wilmington 

Columbia 

Charleston 

The inauguration of President Lincoln 

Averysboro 

Hentonville 

Richmond 

Appomattox 

Raleigh 
- Assassination of President Lincoln 
' European powers grant belligerent rights to the Confed 

Mason and Slidell seized on the Trent 

England sends battle ships to Canada 

Peaceful settlement of Trent affair 


eracy 




(i: 


Napoleon III overthrows the Mexican republic 










Maximilian emperor of Mexico 





302 




TT1E EPOCH "~^^3^^!3s=*^--^>^^=*^ ,^,^ NATIONAI PROGRPS'^ 
«•= RECONSTRUCTION ^^"^ SrSS/ 

CHAPTER XLIV 

ANDREW JOHNSON (SEVENTEENTH PRESIDENT, 
1865-1869), REPUBLICAN 

Andrew Johnson faced many grave problems as he 
took the presidential chair. The South was in chaos. j,. 

The thirteenth amendment to the Constitution, abolish- The thirteenth 
ing slavery forever, wherever it still existed, had just been =''"^"^'°^°* 
sent by Congress to the States for ratification. It was 
necessary to add this amendment to the Constitution, 
because Lincoln's emancipation proclamation applied 
only to the Confederate States. Kentucky, Missouri, 
West Virginia, Maryland, and Delaware had remained 
loyal, yet still held their slaves. 

There seemed two ways of restoring the disloyal States 
to their old position: one was by restoration, the other 
by reconstruction. The Restoration plan did not concede The - Restoration 
that the States had ever been entirely out of the Union, p'.^" "/'^^"■^^'^ •'y 

•' ' Lincoln and 

and, on certain conditions, received them back. The Johnson 
Reconstruction plan considered the disloyal States out 
of the Union, and readmitted them on certain condi- 

r303] 



304 



RECONSTRUCTION 




ANDREW JOHNSON 

1808-1875 



1865 
Congress meets 
(December) 

The " Reconstruc- 
tion plan " adopted 



The' 
oath ' 



ironclad 



1868 

The fourteenth 
amendment 



tioiis, including a guaranty that the negroes should be 
recognized as citizens. 

Lincoln had favored the Restoration plan, and issued 
an "amnesty proclamation" granting pardon, with a 
few exceptions, to all who had taken part in the rebel- 
ion. The condition of pardon was an oath of 
allegiance to the United States and support of 
the emancipation proclamation. He had ' ' re- 
stored " Arkansas, Tennessee, and Louisiana, 
after one tenth of those who had voted in i860 
for presidential electors had taken the oath and 
organized a State government. Johnson, like 
Lincoln, favored the Restoration plan; he 
removed the blockade, and placed provi- 
sional governors over States not yet restored, 
authorizing them to call conventions to organ- 
ize loyal governments by repealing the Ordi- 
nance of Secession, repudiating the Southern war 
debt, abolishing slavery in their own States, and ratify- 
ing the thirteenth amendment to the Constitution. 

When Congress met, the measures of both presidents 
were ignored, and the Reconstruction plan was adopted. 
Senators and representatives from the eleven seceded 
States were not given seats in Congress; and the "iron- 
clad oath,"^ incorporated into the fourteenth amend- 
ment, was demanded of officeholders. 

Congress passed, over President Johnson's veto, the 
Civil Rights bill, guaranteeing to negroes the rights of 
citizenship.^ The bill was also incorporated into the 
fourteenth amendment, ratification of which was made 
a condition of representation in Congress from the South- 
ern States. 



1 Article XIV, Section III, of the Constitution, 
'Article XIV, Section I, of the Constitution. 



JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 305 



Congress put the rebellious States under martial law, The Confederate 

States under 
martial law 



until they should return to the Union, and created - states under 



freedmen's bureau to protect the negroes. 

Meantime the thirteenth and fourteenth amendments The thirteenth and 
were ratified. The seceded States, except Geor- °'^'^'^^"' 

' t^ amendments are 

gia, Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas, were ' ' recon- ratified 
structed; " but the result was very disappointing. 
The ironclad oath disfranchised almost all Southern 
statesmen. Unscrupulous Northern men, called "car- Carpetbaggers and 
petbaggers, " because it was said they brought nothing ^^^^"'^^^ 
with them but carpetbags, hurried across the borders, 
and set up State governments by the votes of negroes 
and a few white men called "scalawags." 

President Johnson vigorously opposed the Reconstruc- 
tion plan, and vetoed the bills providing for it. The bills 
were passed over his veto, however; and, in the end, the 
feeling against him became so violent that he was im- President Johnson 
peached by the House of Representatives for high crimes ""p^*'^ ^ 
and misdemeanors. The trial was before the Senate, 
with Chief Justice Chase presiding. A two-thirds vote 
was necessary for conviction, and Johnson was acquitted 
by just one vote. 

There were many questions for Congress to settle. 

During the war, while our government was too busy to 

help prevent it, Louis Napoleon, the emperor of France, The French in 

overthrew the republic of Mexico, and proclaimed Maxi- '^^'"''° 

milian of Austria emperor. At the close of the war, 

the French army still held the Mexicans under military 

rule. The United States quoted the Monroe doctrine to 

France, and sent General Sheridan to the Rio Grande ^^ 

' 1867 

with an army. France withdrew her troops. Maximil- Death of Emperor 
ian refused to leave, and was shot by the Mexicans who '^**^""'^'^" 

' -' (June 19) 

re-established the republic. g, 

Alaska was bought from Russia through the diplomacy Purchase of Alaska 

(October) 
90 



3o6 



RECONSTRUCTION 



The first Chinese 
embassy 



1863 
West Virginia, 

1864 
Nevada, and 

1867 
Nebraska admitted 

1865 
The national debt 



General U. S. Grant 
elected president 



of William H. Seward, secretary of state, for seven 
million two hundred thousand dollars, and brought much 
wealth in minerals, lumber, and furs to our country. The 
following year China sent an embassy to the United 
States, in charge of Anson Burlingame, who had been 
our American ambassador to that empire. A treaty was 
concluded which gave us greater commercial privileges 
at Chinese ports than those enjoyed by any other nation. 

During the war, West Virginia and Nevada were added 
to the Union, and then Nebraska was admitted as the 
thirty-seventh State. 

The national debt, at the close of the war, was nearly 
three billion dollars. The government determined, from 
the beginning, to pay the debt as soon as possible. 
There was a large income from duties on imports, taxes 
on manufactured articles, the sale of public lands, and 
other sources. The revenues were soon sufficient, not 
only to pay the interest on the debt, but to reduce the 
principal. 

When the time came for the national conventions, the 
Republicans nominated General Ulysses S. Grant, of 
Illinois, president; the Democrats, Horatio Seymour, of 
New York. Grant, the hero of the war, was elected. 



^tRRlTORIAL GR0Wrn 

OF THE 

STATES ^ } 




CHAPTER XLV 

ULYSSES S. GRANT (EIGHTEENTH PRESEDENT, 
1869-1877) REPUBLICAN • 

The census in the year after Ulysses S. Grant became „ 

president showed a population of more than thirty- The census 
eight and a half million. The city of New York had 
nearly a million inhabitants; next in size, were Phila- 
delphia, Brooklyn, and St. Louis. Chicago was close g 
behind the fourth city when a fire swept miles of build- The Chicago fire 
ings from her lake shore. Nearly one hundred thou- 
sand people were made homeless. Money, clothing, , 
and food were sent to the sufferers from all parts of the 
country, and the Prairie City arose from its ashes more 
splendid than ever.^ 

One of the most remarkable things shown by the new The growth of 
census was the growth of the West. The discovery of '^'^ ^"' 
gold in the Rocky Mountains caused thousands to hurry 
to Pike's Peak. Denver was founded; " prairie schoon- 
ers," mules, and horses bore the gold seekers to the 
mountain city, and a line of coaches soon ran from 
Leavenworth to Denver. 

The travel through the prairies of the West aroused 
new interest in the Great American Desert. People 
"learned that the soil was fitted for agriculture; and to ^g^^ 

encourage settlement. Congress passed the Homestead The Homestead Act 
bill, giving farms of eighty or a hundred and sixty 
acres to qualified citizens, who cultivated them for five 
years. 

1 Read Andrews' "Last Quarter Century." 

2 The following year a large part of Boston, including many historic 
buildings, was burned. 

[307] 



3o8 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1869 
The Pacific railroad 
completed 



The first cable 
telegraph 



1866 
A permanent cable 




CYRUS W. FIELD 
1819-1892 



1870 
The signed service 
bureau 
Santo Domingo 



That same year Congress chartered two companies for 
building a railroad to the coast. The Central Pacific 
pledged, in consideration of subsidies in bonds and 
cessions of public lands, to complete a road from Sacra- 
mento eastward, and the Union Pacific from Omaha 
westward. The two roads met near Ogden, Utah. 
After San Francisco had been thus joined with bands 
of iron to the cities of the East, immigration to the West 
increased enormously, and pulled the center of popula- 
tion along at a great rate. 

During President Buchanan's administration, 'as we 
have seen, a cable telegraph united the United States to 
England. After a few weeks, however, this cable ceased 
to work. Cyrus Field made many voyages across the 
sea, and finally secured enough capital in America and 
Europe to begin his work over again. Another line was 
broken and lost. Yet another, two thousand miles long, 
carried by the Great Eastern, connected successfully the 
Port of Heart's Content, Newfoundland, with 
Valentia Bay, Ireland. 

About this time Congress established the first 
signal service bureau. It ascertains several 
days in advance the temperature and moisture 
of the atmosphere, and the direction and vio- 
lence of the winds. At present, the signal 
service system extends over the whole country,, 
and is of value to agriculture and commerce. 
President Grant's first administration had 
much to do with foreign affairs. Santo Domingo, 
the fertile eastern part of Haiti, asked to be annexed to 
the United States. As it was a fine coaling station, and 
well adapted for the colonization of negroes, the presi- 
dent was anxious to buy it. He agreed to a treaty; 
but because its annexation would bring many ignorant 



grant's administration 309 

voters, chiefly negroes, the Senate refused to confirm the 
treaty. 

The United States had trouble with England about The "Aiabanf.i 
the equipment of Southern men-of-war within her waters 
during the rebellion. Confederate agents had built and 
armed the Alabama and the Florida in the Mersey, 
They escaped to sea, and nearly ruined American com- 
merce, taking refuge, when pursued, in British harbors. 
We have seen that the Alabama was sunk by the Kear- 
sarge ; but in her course on the seas she had destroyed 
about seventy merchantmen. The United States de- 
manded damages for the injuries done by these and 
other vessels built and equipped in British waters. „ 

War was threatened. But, in the end, a Board of The Geneva award 
Arbitration at Geneva, Switzerland, decided that Great 
Britain should pay fifteen and a half million dollars 
into the federal treasury for damage done to American 
commerce. That same year the dispute about the north- 
west boundary between the United States and British 
America was settled. " This leaves us," said President 
Grant, in his message to Congress, ' ' for the first time in 
the history of the United States as a nation, without a 
question of disputed territory in the possessions of Great 

Britain." 

1873 

Cuba, the following year, caused complications with Trouble with spair 
Spain. The Virginiiis, an American vessel, carried sup- 
plies to help the natives of Cuba in a rebellion against 
Spain. Of course the crew had no right to do this. They 
were seized on the ocean by a Spanish man-of-war, and 
taken to Cuba. Several were shot without a legal trial. 
The United States protested against the injustice so vigor- 
ously that Spain stopped the death penalty, and after- 
ward released those left alive. 

Meantime the relations at home were more compli- 



3IO 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1870 
The fifteenth 
amendment adopted 
(March 30) 



The trials of 
reconstruction in 
the South 



General Robert E. 
Lee, president of 
Washington 
University 



The Kuklux Klan 



cated than those abroad. The fifteenth amendment, 
ratified by the States, forbidding the United States or 
any State to prevent any person from voting because of 
his race, color, or previous condition of servitude, gave 
the negro the right to vote. That same year the last 
States were reconstructed, and, the following term of 
Congress, members were again in their seats from all 
the States, as before the war. One of the senators was 
Hiram R. Revels, of Mississippi, the first colored mem- 
ber of Congress. 

There was still much trouble in the South over the 
negro question. In many States more negroes than 
white men voted, so that the ex-slaves had control of the 
local government. They were utterly ignorant, and 
became the tools of the carpetbaggers. 

The condition of the descendants of the cavaliers was 
most distressing at this time. Vast estates had been 
sold for taxes; proud planters became clerks; and high- 
bred ladies hired out as governesses. 

Many noble men and women accepted the verdict of 
the war, and bent their energies toward building up the 
South to its old honored place in the Union. 

General . Robert E. Lee, president of Washington 
University, used his influence to develop a love for the 
Union. When a Virginia lady brought her two sons to 
enter the school, and in his presence expressed bitter 
hatred for the North, the great man said: "Madam, do 
not bring up your sons to detest the United States gov- 
ernment. We form but one country nonK Make your 
sons Americans." 

Yet it was a terrible struggle for even the best of 
Southern leaders to submit to the trials of reconstruc- 
tion. Race prejudice was strong. The Kuklux Klan, 
a secret society of young Southern whites, was formed 



GRANT S ADMINISTRATION 



311 



"Liberal " 
Republicans 



to keep freed men "in their place." Murders were 
committed in the name of the society for all sorts of 
private grudges, until the Southerners themselves de- 
tested the system. When the State governments asked 
aid, President Grant sent troops, and Congress passed 
severe laws against the Kuklux Klans, which finally put 
an end to their meetings. 

There was so much trouble in the South over the 
various stringent laws enacted by Congress that some 
Republicans formed a faction, called " Liberal Re- 
publicans."^ Carl Schurz, Stanley Matthews, 
and Charles Francis Adams were some of the 
leading men among the Liberal Republicans 
who demanded the removal of federal troops 
from the South, universal amnesty to the Con- 
federates, a tariff for revenue only, and civil 
service reform. 

The Republican newspapers took sides 
on the political issues. The New York 
Times and Harper'' s Weekly sided with the 
Republicans. In the Weekly, Thomas Nast 
the caricaturist, used his genius to further the 
interests of the old party. 

Horace Greeley, in the New York Tribune, and Murat 
Halstead, in the Cincinnati Commercial, supported the 

-r •, 1 ,, The national 

l^lDeraiS. conventions 

The Republicans nominated General Grant for re- xhe Republicans 
election. The Liberals nominated Horace Greeley; but The Liberals 
a faction of the Liberals, displeased with the choice, 
chose another candidate. The Democrats indorsed the The Democrats 
Liberal ticket; Mr. Greeley's paper had so often de- 
nounced the democracy of the South, however, that a 




HORACE GREELEY 
I8II-I872 



1 Read Johnston's " American Politics.*' 



312 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The Labor Reform 
party 



The Prohibition 
party 

1872 
All the States take 
part in the national 
elections 



faction refused to support him, and nominated Charles 
O'Conor. The Labor Reform party, which wished the 
Chinese excluded and government bonds taxed, and 
opposed national banks, and land grants to railroads and 
other corporations, indorsed Charles O'Conor. 

The Prohibition party, demanding an amendment to 
the Constitution prohibiting the sale of liquor, nomi- 
nated James Black, of Pennsylvania. Qualified citi- 
zens of all the States, including negroes, voted at this 
election. 

General Grant was elected for a second term. 



1873 

The panic 



Wild speculation 



Lack of public 
confidence 



The " greenbacks ' 



CHAPTER XLVI 

ULYSSES S. GRANT (1869-1877) (Continued) 
REPUBLICAN 

The second term of President Grant began with a 
financial panic. During the administration of Van 
Buren the country suffered from the results of a " boom. " 
The panic in Grant's administration was largely due to 
the same causes. 

There had been a fictitious value on railroad, mining, 
and manufacturing stock. States, towns, and private 
corporations took great risks, and plunged into debt. 
Then came lack of confidence; stocks declined in value, 
banks called in their loans; manufacturing, mining, and 
railroad building stopped, and thousands of workmen 
were thrown out of employment. 

Several years passed before the country recovered 
from this panic of 1873. 

We have seen how Congress issued "greenbacks," or 
promissory notes, to be used as money during the war. 



grant's administration 313 

because gold and silver were scarce. The value of this 
paper had gone up or down according to the success of 
the war. Just before Atlanta was taken, a paper dollar 
was worth about forty cents in coin. A barrel of fiour, 
in some places, cost twenty-two dollars. After the war 
was over, the value of the paper money was not always 
the same. It was evidently necessary to strengthen the ^g 

credit of the government. So to put things on a solid The Resumption of 
basis again. Congress passed the Resumption Act, by Specie Payment Act 
which the government declared it would make its bonds, 
"greenbacks," and national banknotes redeemable in 
coin, after Jan. i, 1879.^ This satisfied the holders 
of federal paper both at home and in Europe. Confi- 
dence in "greenbacks" was restored, and business 
began to improve just from the positive assurance of 
what would happen in four years. , 

The year the Resumption Act was passed was the The centennial of 
centennial of the battle of Lexington. lon(Aprii°) ^"'"^ 

On April 19, President Grant reviewed a jsrocession 
of soldiers in Lexington where the statues of Samuel 
Adams and John Hancock were unveiled. Pine trees and 
palmetto trees stood on the platform in Lexington com- 
mon as emblems that Massachusetts and South Carolina 
joined together in celebration of the battle which began 
our struggle for liberty. South Carolina, the first to 
secede from the Union in the Civil war, because she 
did not read the Constitution as Congress and the federal 
courts read it, had been the first to respond to the call 
for a Continental Congress. On this centennial day 
Governor Chamberlain, of South Carolina, in an elo- 
quent address, spoke of his State as cemented anew in south Carolina 

the Union. at the Lexington 

centennial 

' ' Oh, welcome South Carolina to-day to the old 

^ See page 287. 



314 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1876 

Centennial of the 
Declaration of 
Independence 

(July 4) 



Congress and State 
Legislatures make 
appropriations 



Grant opens the 
Exposition (May 10) 

1776-1876 
The Fourth of July 



fellowship!" he said. "The monuments of marble 
crumble, but there is one monument which we may 
erect in the hearts of all the American people — the 
monument of a reunited country, a free and just govern- 
ment, ' an indestructible Union of indestructible States. ' " 

Governor Gaston, of Massachusetts, followed in an 
address, closing with the appeal to all sections: " Let 
us declare that we will preserve and maintain that 
Republic whose strong foundations were laid one hun- 
dred years ago." 

The next centennial to come was that of the signing 
of the Declaration of Independence. It was proposed 
to make the hundredth Fourth of July a time for a 
World's Fair, and invite all nations to unite with us in 
celebrating at Philadelphia. 

Some said the monarchies of Europe would not set 
such a bad example before their subjects as to join with 
a republic in commemorating this day. They said 
Queen Victoria would never send commissioners to 
celebrate the defeat of her grandfather. Yet thirty- 
three foreign governments, representing all the civilized 
nations except Greece, accepted the invitation to make 
exhibits. 

Congress appropriated over two million dollars to 
erect a national building, and aid in the success of the 
undertaking; and several legislatures appropriated funds 
to erect State buildings. 

President Grant opened the Exposition on May lO. 
The great day was the Fourth of July. Wagner, the 
German composer, had written a march for the occasion; 
Whittier, a centennial hymn; and Sidney Lanier, the 
poet of Georgia, an ode to the Union. Richard Henry 
Lee, descendant of him who moved the adoption of the 
Declaration of Independence, brought the original docu- 



GRANT S ADMINISTRATION 



315 



ment, yellow with age, to the view of the vast audience; 
then Bayard Taylor read a poem, and William M. 
Evarts delivered a patriotic address. 

Months of sight -seeing followed these exercises. 
There were products from almost every clime and coun- 
try gathered on the Exposition grounds. The American The Americans find 
people realized more than ever that there was much to *''^'^^<=>'*'=*"^^ 

^ r much to learn 

do before they could hope to rank in art and science 

with the older nations. Yet in industrial inventions 

the United States took first place. The two most noted 

novelties were the electric light and Bell's telephone; Electric light and 

but no one then dreamed of the value these discoveries '^'^ '«='^phone 

would one day be to the world. 

On the grounds, the white, the black, and the red The three races 
races mingled again as one hundred years before. 

The white man was the bustling master of the situa- 
tion; the black was timidly pushing here and there 
through the crowds, feeling that, as a citizen, he had 
a share in the displays. The red man at the Cen- 
tennial was only a curiosity in his native land, and 
a troop of boys followed him as he wandered 
about in blankets and paints. 

But far in the West, where most of the tribes 
had been driven during the century, some war- 
riors were fighting for the patch of soil which 
still remained. The Modocs in southern ^" 
Oregon, when ordered by the government f^J 
to remove to another reservation, had re- -^^ 
fused to go, killed the peace commissioners, 
one of whom was General Canby, and concealed 
themselves in a network of underground passages 
several miles in length, made by old volcanoes, whence The Modoc Indians 
they were not driven for more than a year. 

The Sioux Indians, who, during the Civil war, had The sioux Indians 




SITTING BULL 
1872- 1873 



3i6 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Gold in thfl 
Black Hills 



Sitting Bull 




GEORGE ARMSTRONG CUSTER 
1839-1876 



1876 
Death of General 
Custer and his 
regiment (June 25) 



Indian Territory 



invaded Iowa and Minnesota, and killed nearly a thou- 
sand men, women, and children, were again giving 
trouble. They had agreed by treaty to retire to a reser- 
vation in southwestern Dakota. Meanwhile, however, 
gold was discovered in what is now South Dakota. The 
gold was in that part of the Black Hills which belonged 
to the Sioux reservation. But this did not prevent gold 
diggers from rushing into the district. They were very 
lawless. They hunted the buffalo for sport, and left 
the carcasses lying all over the plains to decay. 
This was taking meat from the Indians. The 
Sioux resolved to be avenged. Under their 
leader. Sitting Bull, they attacked settle- 
ments in Wyoming and Montana, burning, 
stealing, and killing wherever they might. 
The government sent out an army which drove 
them toward the Big Horn in southern Mon- 
tana. 

When General Custer found that the Sioux 
were in a large village on the Little Big Horn, 
he rashly pushed forward with a single cavalry regi- 
ment, was surrounded by thousands of painted war- 
riors, and killed, with every man in his detachment of 
two hundred and sixty-two. Fresh troops soon came 
up, and drove the Indians into British America. 

Yet war was not the favorite pastime of all the red 
men this centennial year. An Indian Territory had been 
set apart for them during the administration of President 
Jackson, and the Cherokees of Georgia, the Seminoles 
and Creeks of Florida, and the Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
and other tribes along the Mississippi had found hunting 
grounds there. Many tribes, governed by laws of their 
own framing, had laid out farms, built pleasant towns, set 



grant's administration 317 

up printing presses, and establisiied schools and churches. 
It was hoped that other reservations might follow the 
example of Indian Territory. 

Colorado/ whose gold and silver mines had made her Colorado admitted 

. • r ■ 1 '.. J • i ,1 TT * tt as the Centennial 

mountams famous, was admitted mto the Union as the gtate 

Centennial State. „ ^ 

1876 

When the time came for the national conventions, The national 
the Democrats nominated for president Samuel J. ^^""••^""""^ 
Tilden, governor of New York, and the Republicans, 
Rutherford B. Hayes, governor of Ohio. 

The Liberal Republicans were so anxious for a change 
of government that they joined the Democratic party 
rather than risk failure with a candidate of their own. 
The Prohibition party nominated Green Clay Smith, of 
Kentucky. The Independent National party, calling for 
a repeal of the Resumption Act, and wishing the govern- 
ment to print "greenbacks," or paper money, with a 
fixed value and without promise to redeem them in coin, 
chose Peter Cooper, of New York. The principal issues 
at stake were the tariff and civil service reform. Tariff and civii 

Now, as we have seen, electors cast their vote for ^^''^'« •^^^o''"' 
president and vice-president. When the votes began Disputed electoral 
to come in, it seemed almost certain that Tilden was ''°'^ 
elected. But in South Carolina, Florida, and Louis- 
iana still existed the " carpetbag" rule, which a portion 
of the people refused to recognize. Two separate sets 
of returns were sent in for presidential electors. Oregon 
also sent in double returns. If all four States were to 
be counted Republican, Hayes would have one hundred 
and eighty-five votes and Tilden one hundred and eighty- 
four. 



* In 1893 Colorado granted women equal suffrage with men by a con- 
stitutional amendment. 'Seepage 305. 



3i8 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The electoral 
commission 



Rutherford B. 
Hayes declared 
elected by a joint 
high commission 



The Electoral 
Count bill 
(Feb. 3) 



Each party claimed the four States. Just at this 
time, it happened that the Senate was RepubHcan and 
the House of Representatives Democratic; so, if the two 
sets of electoral votes were sent to Congress, there 
could be no agreement; for, according to the Constitu- 
tion, it is necessary that the two Houses agree upon the 
result. There was great excitement over this state of 
affairs. It began to look as if inauguration day would 
come, and there would be either two presidents or no 
president; and the Constitution had no provision for 
such a crisis. 

At last, Congress agreed to refer the dispute to a 
joint high commission of five senators, five representa- 
tives, and five judges of the Supreme Court. The elec- 
tion was decided by a vote of eight*to seven in each case 
in favor of the Republicans. Rutherford B. Hayes was 
declared elected just two days before President Grant's 
term expired. Although some were dissatisfied with the 
result, all were glad that the dispute was settled. 

Later on the Electoral Count bill was passed by 
Congress to prevent the recurrence of such an electoral 
dispute. This made each State responsible for the 
legality of its own vote. 



CHAPTER XLVII 



RUTHERFORD B. HAYES (NINETEENTH PRESIDENT 
1877-1881), REPUBLICAN 

One of the first acts of President Hayes was to recall President Hayes 
the federal troops from the South; and as a result the ^'^'^^'"^/'^derai 

*^ troops from the 

native white citizens soon came into power again. South 

The president began a civil service reform. He firmly 
refused to make changes except where necessary for the 
public good; and issued an order asking employees 
not to take part in the management of political 
organizations. 

The new census showed the population of the 
United States to be over fifty million, and re- 
vealed a wonderful advance in commercial pros- 
perity. The cotton crop for the census year, 
three fourths of which had been raised by 
free negroes, was the largest known in the 
history of the South. 

During the past decade railroads had carried '"'^^"le^j'Jgga "^^^^ 
thousands of settlers who had taken homesteads in 
the Western States and Territories. 

Wheat, canned and pickled meats, butter, cheese, Rumors of wars in 
live stock, cotton, and even manufactured articles had Europe create a 

oemand for 

been in such demand abroad, on account of preparations American products 
for European war, that our exports had reached two and 
a half million dollars more than our imports. 

Now, much of the grain exported was cultivated in 
the West, yet the distance to the seaboard was so great 
that transportation rates took almost all the profits of 
the crops. 

Accordingly, the "Grangers," an organization of The -Granger** 

[319J 




320 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The distribution 
of wealth 



Capital and labor 



' Strikes ' 



farmers, petitioned Congress for better and cheaper 
transportation. A Congressional Committee on rail- 
roads and canals reported that, according to Section 8, 
Article i, of the Constitution, Congress had the right to 
regulate interstate commerce. This decision was not 
acted upon at the time, but, as we shall see, was of 
immense value later on, in passing a law to protect 
citizens from unjust demands of railroad corporations. 

It was found by the census that wealth was very 
unequally distributed among the people of the United 
States. During the Civil war there had been profitable 
contracts in meat, flour, and clothing for the army, and 
much speculation in money — immense quantities of paper 
money being bought when its value was down to forty- 
eight cents on the dollar, to sell, when the government's 
credit was restored, for a hundred cents on the dollar. 
In other ways many had profited by the Civil war. 

But more had been made poor by it. Men had shut 
up shops and factories and left farms and offices to 
hurry to the defense of their country. It was difficult 
to get a start again after the war was over. The popu- 
lation had increased so fast that even the tremendous 
business of the country could not give everybody work. 

During the panic of 1873, prices went down. Cor- 
porations and their employees soon disagreed about 
wages. There were "strikes," when work was stopped 
until higher wages were given. Of course, every one 
had the right to quit work. But the strikers banded 
together to prevent others from taking their places in 
the deserted shops. 

In a railroad strike, traffic was blocked from New 
York to San Francisco. More than one hundred lives 
were lost, and property to the value of three million 
dollars was destroyed. When the States found them- 



Hayes's administration 321 

selves unable to stop the riots with their militia, Presi- 
dent Hayes sent United States troops to help them. 

Chinese immigration caused riots on the Pacific coast. Chinese immigration 
The Mongolians had been coming more and more into 
America since the gold excitement of 1849. Thousands 
of coolies were kidnapped and brought to America under 
contract. 

In 1868 Anson Burlingame secured Articles from China Anson Buriingame 
making it a penal offense to take natives to the United 
States without their consent. Yet the immigration had 
continued to increase. 

During all these labor troubles, the financial question The currency 
was prominent in Congress. About this time a number 
of the European countries had demonetized silver ; 
that is, they had passed laws that debts should be paid 
in gold. This made silver cheap in Europe. Because 
a silver dollar was equal to a gold dollar in the United 
States, it was profitable to foreigners to buy gold dol- 
lars with their cheap silver money. 

To prevent lowering the standard of our coinage, Con- Demonetization of 
gress, during Grant's administration, also demonetized ^'^^" 
silver, making it legal tender only for debts of less than five 
dollars, and stopped the coinage of silver dollars. 

But there being a difference of opinion about the effect 
of this Act of Congress, silver, during Hayes's adminis- 
tration, was remonetized by the Bland Silver bill; that is, Remonetization of 
it was again allowed to be used, at the ratio of 16 to i, 
to pay debts. The Republican Senate and the Demo- 
cratic House agreed on this bill, and passed it over the 
president's veto. Then because people could not well 
carry all the silver coined for them by the government, 
they were allowed to deposit the silver in the treasury, <• silver certificates" 
and given paper certificates of deposit. 

Now for more than sixteen years "greenbacks" had 



silver under the 
Bland bill 



332 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1879 

Resumption of 
specie payments 



been almost the only money in use. The value of this 
paper money had changed at different times, according 
to the credit of the government. Durirtg the war, and 
even afterward, greenbacks were cheaper than gold, and 
people were always trying to change them into coin. 

But when, in accordance with the Resumption Act,' 
the government opened the doors of the treasury, and 
offered to redeem paper money with gold or silver, it 
was suddenly found how very convenient paper money 
was. Its value rose until a paper dollar was about as 
good as a gold dollar. This was because people felt 
confidence in the government's good will and ability to 
pay its debt. 

As you will remember, the government borrowed a 
great deal of money to carry on the war. This had 
been done at a high rate of interest. 

The national credit was now so good, however, that 
many who had money to loan were willing to loan it at 
a low rate of interest. So, in harmony with a Re- 
funding Act of Congress, new bonds bearing a 
low rate of interest were sold, and the money 
received for them was used to pay off bonds bear- 
ing a high rate of interest. This "refunding" 
saved the government several millions of dol- 
lars a year. 

At the national conventions there was lit- 
tle difference between the two great parties 
wiNFiELD SCOTT HANCOCK cxccpt ou the tariff question. Both were in 
1824-1886 favor of reforming the civil service, fostering the 

1880 public schools under the Constitution, and restricting 

Chinese immigration. The Democrats nominated Gen- 
eral Winfield S. Hancock, of New York, for president 



Refunding the 
national debt 




The national 
conventions 



» See page 313. 



Hayes's administration 



:^ 323 



and William H. English, of Indiana, vice-president; the 
Republicans, General James A. Garfield, of Ohio, and 
Chester A. Arthur, of New York. 

On the tariff question the Democrats still demanded The platforms 
that customhouse taxation should be for revenue only. 
The Republicans declared that customhouse duties for 
revenue should favor American labor in order that " re- 






" / -"w£3 / --: f ■•■■"■•%;.. J flCrt^ 

|(2., ' ^ / ; ~ .„. >.-^>.-^> ILL.'. lOHlOd^ 



ELECTION OF 1880 



viving industries should be further promoted and com- 
merce steadily encouraged." 

Both parties opposed large grants of land to railroad 
and other corporations. The Labor party declared 
against Chinese immigration, the issue of money by 
national banks, and land grants to railroads, and in- 
sisted on the regulation of interstate commerce by the James a. Garfield 
government. They nominated James R. Weaver for 
president. The Prohibition party nominated Neal Dow. 

The Republican nominees were elected. 



CHAPTER XLVIII 




JAMES A. GARFIELO 
1831-1881 



IS8I 

The assassination of 

President Garfield 

(July 2) 

Garfield's death 
(September 19) 



JAMES A. GARFIELD AND CHESTER A. ARTHUR 
(TWENTIETH AND TWENTY-FIRST PRESI- 
DENTS, 1881-1885), REPUBLICAN 

James A. Garfield was another example of how suc- 
cess in America depends on talent and personal industry. 
The orphan farmer boy had risen to the highest place in 
the gift of the nation. 

He began to carry out vigorously the policy of civil 
service reform. But a horde of hungry office- 
seekers loudly demanded that federal employees 
should be discharged to give them places. Many 
members of Congress who wished to favor polit- 
'. ical friends were unwilling to adopt civil service 
reforms. 

To escape for a few days from the strain of 
his new duties President Garfield started for 
the seashore. In company with James G. 
Hlaine, secretary of state, he entered the rail- 
way station at Washington. A few moments 
later he was shot by a disappointed office-seeker. 
The assassin was taken to prison and afterward hanged. 
The wounded president, after weeks of suffering, was 
removed to the seashore. Here he died on the anniver- 
sary of the battle of Chickamauga, where he had won much 
glory. The czar of all the Russias had been assassinated 
a few weeks before the president. People said it was 
the system of oppression that had caused the deed. Yet 
in America, "the land of the free and the home of the 
brave," evil passion had slain two rulers whom the voice 
of the people had called to their high place. 
[324] 



Garfield's administration 325 

It is said that at a mass meeting held in Wall Street, 
New York, to deplore the assassination of President Lin- 
coln, Garfield was on a platform with other speakers. 
When the throng threatened to become a mob, Garfield ^g^ 

sprang from his seat, seized a flag, and waved it. Think- GarfieWs address to 
ing he had received a telegram, the people were silent. Lhlcoin-V ^^""^°* 
Pointing toward heaven, Garfield said slowly, and with assassination 
awe-inspiring voice : ' ' Fellow citizens ! ' Clouds 
and darkness are round about Him! His pavilion 
is dark waters and thick clouds of the skies! Jus- 
tice and judgment are the habitations of his 
throne! Mercy and truth shall go before his 
face! ' Fellow citizens! God reigns: and the 
government at Washington still lives! " His 
words caused the crowd to disperse. Men 
now remembered this incident and many 

others that had made Tames A. Garfield, the ^.^^.-ctto . .otmit, 

farmer boy, a leader among leaders. 1830-1886 

After President Garfield's death, Vice-President 
Arthur took the oath of office, and again men might say vice-president 

/^r-iiii • ^ r , /^ ^ • ^ 1 1 j_ Arthur becomes 

as Garfield had said: " God reigns, and the government president 
at Washington still lives ! " „„j 

On October 19, the centennial of the surrender of The centennial of 

Cornwallis was celebrated at Yorktown. Guests came ff!^"^" 

Yorktown 

up the Tallapoosa on the i8th. Guns were fired as ves- (October ly; 
sel after vessel sailed into the harbor of the little South- 
ern town, bearing President Arthur with most of his 
cabinet, and the descendants of Lafayette, Steuben, 
Rochambeau, De Grasse, and other gallant officers who 
were fighting with Washington when the British troops 
laid down their arms. The following day when the cor- 
ner stone of the Yorktown centennial monument was 
laid, generals from the North and generals from the 
South helped dedicate the granite. During the naval 




326 NATIONAL PROGRESS 

review in the harbor, a salute, by order of the president, 
was fired by the whole American fleet to the British 
Union Jack hoisted at the foremast of each ship, in 
recognition of the peace and good will existing between 
the United States and the mother country. 

Atlanta Cotton That Same year a cotton exposition at Atlanta, Ga. , 

Exposition brought the manufacturer of the North to the producer 

of the South. For a hundred years the two had been 
commercially about as far apart as if the ocean lay 
between them, and now these countrymen walked and 
talked together like brothers, as they planned how best 
to develop their mutual interests. 

I Many manufacturers saw for the first time the cotton 

in the field, and planters enjoyed the novelty of watch- 
ing the busy spindles change their cotton into thread. 
Statistics showed that the sixteen crops of cotton 

I made by free labor since the war exceeded by sev- 

eral million bales the sixteen crops before the war. 
There were frank talks between the men of the North 

' and those of the South, during the Atlanta exposition. 

A grandson of John C. Calhoun, the "Father of the 

Secession," said: " If my grandfather and his associates 

could have foreseen the present condition of the negro, 

gg there would have been neither slavery nor war." 

New Orleans Cotton On the Centennial of the first shipment of a bale of 

Exposition cotton to England, New Orleans gave a cotton expo- 

sition. 

Th« " New South " But faw cotton in the bales was not now the only 

pride of the South. The dream of John Randolph was 
being realized. The cotton gin and the cotton mill 
were side by side. With vast beds of coal and iron in 
the mountains, the country was developing manufactur- 
ing interests; and trunk lines of railroads were building 
into new industrial centers. 



Arthur's administration 327 

About this time the Tradesman, oi Tennessee, declared: 
*'The period is near, when, as a group, the States of 
Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, Alabama, 
and Kentucky will become the largest and most success- 
ful iron and steel producing district of like area in the 
world." 

A South Carolina paper said: "There is room here 
for Germans, Scandinavians, Swiss, Scotch, and Yan- 
kees," adding, " None but the best are good enough for 
South Carolina." . Accordingly, with both natural 
resources and citizens extending a welcome, immigra- 
tion, which was once only toward the north and west, 
on account of the system of slavery, was also turning 
southward. ^gg^ 

The chief legislative events of President Arthur's Restriction of 

J'-.,- ,1 ,•,• t r^\^- • • Chinese immigration 

admmistration were the restriction oi Chinese immigra- 
tion for ten years, and the Civil Service Act; both gg 
measures were supported by a large majority in Con- The civii service 
gress without regard to party lines. The Civil Service ^^^ 
Act enables the president, with the consent of the 
Senate, to appoint a board of commissioners to exam- 
ine the fitness of candidates for federal offices. 

Another act of the same year was the reduction of Two cents per half 
postage from three cents to two cents per half ounce for """"^^ postage 
first-class mail matter to any part of the United States. 
This made, for long distances, the lowest postal rate in ^.gg 

the world. Two years later the rate was reduced to Two cents per ounce 
two cents per ounce. ^°*'^^^i88^ 

A plan was adopted by the railroad companies, divid- Railroad timetables 
ing the time-tables of the United States into Eastern 
time for the territory east of the meridian passing 
Buffalo and Pittsburg; Central time, reaching thence 
west to the meridian of North Platte, Neb. ; Moun- 
tain time, to the meridian of Ogden, Utah; and Pacific 



328 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



American explorers 

1838 
Lieutenant Wilkes 
in the Antarctic 
Ocean 



1850 
Henry Grinnell in 
the Arctic Ocean 



1853 
Dr. Kane 

i860 
Captain Hall 



1879 
An International 
Geographical 
Congress 



188I 
Lieutenant Greely 
sets out to explore 
the Arctic Ocean 



time, extending to the coast. At noon each day, tele- 
graph wires announce the correct time from the national 
observatory at Washington. 

For many years the United States had been among 
the foremost in scientific research. During Van Buren's 
administration Lieutenant Wilkes, who was sent to the 
Antarctic Ocean, sailed nearly two thousand miles 
along the coast of a great Southern continent which the 
world knew nothing about — perhaps it was only ice. 

Henry Grinnell, a New York merchant, sent an 
expedition toward the North Pole to search for Sir 
John Franklin, the famous explorer, who for five years 
had been lost in the polar seas. But the ice told no 
tales of his fate. Then Dr. Kane was sent northward; 
Captain Hall and his crew followed, and brought home 
many relics of Sir John. Other expeditions to the polar 
seas were made with private capital. 

At an International Geographical Congress held in 
Hamburg, Germany, the United States pledged to estab- 
lish one of a chain of thirteen supply stations toward the 
North Pole for scientific explorations. Lieutenant 
Greely, with twenty-five companions, set out soon after 
the congress, to push farther than any other explorer, if 
possible; and he did. In Grinnell Land, he found Lake 
"Hazen," sixty miles long, Mount Arthur, the highest 
peak of two new mountain ranges, and many rivers and 
glaciers. The party remained two years in the realm of 
winter. Several expeditions were sent out in search of 
them; but ice floes prevented advance toward the 
Greely station. At length a relief corps found dispatches 
from Greely in caches along Smith's Sound. 

The missing party was discovered with only seven 
alive. Most of the others had died of starvation. Lieu- 
tenant Greely was given the Queen's gold medal by the 



Arthur's administration 



329 



\L 




Royal Geographical Society of London. He had reached 

82° 16', the farthest point ever before reached in the north. ^g^g 

Meantime Henry M. Stanley had been sent by James Henry m. stamey 
Gordon Bennett to Africa in search of David Living- 
stone, the missionary. Stanley found Livingstone, and 
continued his explorations into "Darkest Africa." He 
discovered the Upper Congo, and the monarchs of 
Europe vied with one another in showering honors 
upon him. i 

Now by the close of President Arthur's admin- ' 
istration nearly half of the great war debt had 
been paid; but the debt could not all be paid. 
People who held government bonds thought 
their money so well invested that they pre 
ferred a small interest to a larger one where 
the risks were greater. With coin jingling in the 
vaults, the American government was unable to get 
people to take payment for bonds not due; accord 
ingly a large surplus began to accumulate in the treasury, a surplus in 

111 • re 1 r •!• the treasury 

Congress reduced the tariff to keep money from pilmg up ^gg^ 

uselessly. The Democratic party wanted to reduce du- Tariff reduction 
ties on imported goods still more at the next session of 
Congress. And again the old question of free trade or 
protection for home industries came before 
the people. At the national convention, 
the Labor party insisted on labor reforms, 
and nominated Benjamin F. Butler for 
president. The Prohibition party nomi- 
nated John P. St. John. The Republican 
party declared for protection, and nom- 
inated James G. Blaine, of Maine, 
for president, and John A. Logan, of " 
Illinois, for vice-president. The Dem- 
ocratic party advocated reducing the sur- 



HENRY M. STANLEY 

1840-1904 




JAMES G. BLAINE 
1830-1893 



330 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



plus revenue by cutting down tariff rates, and nominated 
Grover Cleveland, of New York, and Thomas A. Hen- 
dricks, of Indiana. 

The Republican nominee, whose readiness in debate 
had won him the name of the 'Plumed Knight," was a 
great-grandson of Commissary General Blaine, who had 
helped from his private fortune to furnish food and cloth- 




/ COL. 




/"•- L. WES \ iowa)" 

KAN, J«n\ i-'m-'^^f^ 
1?Y. %^ '^ 
„,^-^'^"" 

ASK. 




] RIPUBUCAN 
J (BLAINC) 



ELECTION OF 1884 

ing for Washington's army at Valley Forge. Blaine's 
popularity with the people was often compared to that of 
Henry Clay; but like the great leader of the Whigs, he 
was defeated by the choice of the Democrats. 

Grover Cleveland, a clergyman's son, had struggled 
for an education, working, meanwhile, in a store as 
chore boy at fifty dollars a year. After a time he be- 
came an associate in a law firm in Buffalo. He was 
elected mayor of Buffalo, then governor of New York, 
and now his party offered him the highest place within 



Arthur's administration 



331 



the gift of the people. Many Repubhcans, who had 
faith in Cleveland's pledges for civil service reform, 
voted the Democratic ticket. The Republicans who 
rallied to the standard of Blaine were called ' ' Stal- 
warts, " and the Independent Republicans, who 
"scratched their ticket" for Cleveland, were called 
" Mugwumps, " an Indian name meaning chiefs. With 
Grover Cleveland, the Democratic party came again Crover Cleveland 
into power after twenty-five years of defeat. 



elected president 



CHAPTER XLIX 

GROVER CLEVELAND (TWENTY-SECOND PRESIDENT, 
1885-1889), DEMOCRATIC 

RESIDENT CLEVELAND chose able 
men for his cabinet. The federal em- 
ployees began to pack up their belong- 
ings, expecting to be removed immedi- 
ately. But the civil service rules were 
carried out as much as possible, with 
few changes except in the higher 
offices. 

Mr. Cleveland had been the choice 
of the " Solid South," yet in July, when General Grant ^ , f^^ , 

•' •' Death of General 

died, he did all he could to honor the memory of the Grant juiy 23) 
great military hero. "Let us have peace, " Grant had 
said.' Legislatures in the South as well as in the North 
adjourned in respect to his memory, and eulogies were 
pronounced upon his life and services. 

As the remains were carried to their temporary resting 

iRead General Grant's "Memoirs," finished just before his death. 




332 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



" Liberty Enlight- 
ening the World " 
unveiled 




GROVER CLEVELAND 
1837-1908 



Labor troubles 



Strikes on the 
Missouri Pacific 



place on the bank of the Hudson River, President 
Cleveland and his cabinet were in the procession. 
Confederate officers in gray silk sashes mingled with 
officers in blue. Among the pallbearers was General 
Buckner who had surrendered to Grant at Fort Donel- 
son. Generals Joseph E. Johnston and William T. 
Sherman, who had fought each other in the Atlanta 
campaign, walked side by side at the bier. 

In October of the following year, Bartholdi's statue 
of "Liberty Enlightening the World," presented to the 
United States by Frenchmen, was unveiled on Bedloe's 
Island in New York harbor. The figure is a Watch- 
tower throwing light over the ocean from a torch 
held, three hundred feet above low water, in the 
hand of Liberty. The ceremonies of dedication 
were similar to those of Yorktown. Distin- 
^ guished French guests were present; the French 
tricolor mingled with our red, white, and blue, 
and hundreds of voices from the frigates in 
"^ the harbor sang, "Hail Columbia" and the 

" Marseillaise." 
There were labor troubles the first years of 
President Cleveland's administration. Many rich 
men seemed to be always getting richer and employees 
in the factories and other large establishments refused 
to work without more pay and shorter time. Of course, 
they had the right to do this. But when many much 
poorer than themselves attempted to work at the old 
prices, they prevented them from doing so. 

In riots on the Missouri Pacific Railroad, the loss to 
labor was over a million dollars; to those who would 
have worked, but were not allowed, a half million; 
and to the Missouri Pacific three million. 

At Chicago forty thousand workmen struck for eight 



restriction of 
Chinese immigration 



CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION 333 

hours of labor a day. A bomb, thrown by some an- Riots in Chicago 
archists, exploded at the feet of the police arresting a 
rioter, and seven men were killed. After a trial, four of 
the anarchists implicated were hanged. 

Labor strikes were becoming so frequent and so 
serious that Congress enacted laws to help protect both ^gg 

the employer and the employee. Since one cause of the The Contract 
trouble was thought to be the large number of ignorant 
workmen brought from Europe by manufacturers to 
work at lower prices than an American could possibly 
afford respectably to live upon, Congress passed the 
Contract Labor bill, forbidding foreigners under contract 
to come to America. ggg 

Congress then passed a still more severe law against The second 
Chinese immigration, prohibiting the return from China 
of laborers who had gone back home. gg 

The death of Vice-President Hendricks again called Death of vice- 
attention to the defect in the law of succession in the ^'^[Novembe^as)'^ ' 
executive office. At the death of President Garfield, 
Vice-President Arthur became, of course, president, 
but if he had died in office, no one might legally have 
taken his place. Congress therefore passed a bill pro- jggg 

viding that if both the presidency and the vice-presidency Law of succession 
are vacant, the presidency passes to the members of the '"* ^^'^"' *"'^^ 
cabinet in rotation, beginning with the secretary of 
state, because that office was first created. 

About that time several blizzards, or wind-storms, Blizzards and 
swept over the country. Then a severe earthquake ^^'^i"^''^* 
shook the very foundations of Charleston, S. C, during 
which many lives were lost, and several million dollars' 
worth of property was destroyed. Aid was sent to the 
sufferers from every State in the Union. 

When the time drew near for the hundredth anniver- 
sary of the signing of the Constitution of the United 



334 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1887 
The centennial of 
the signing of the 
Constitution 

(September 17) 



Gladstone's arch 



Means of 
transportation 



States, it was decided to celebrate the event. Phila- 
delphia, where the Constitution was signed, was chosen 
as the place for the exercises. Here stood the old red 
brick Federal Hall, just as it was a hundred years 
before, with its relics of our early patriots. 

On September 17, the celebration began. President 
Cleveland and members of his cabinet, the chief justice 
and his associates, the governors of States, and other 
distinguished guests witnessed a parade. One hundred 
and fifty bands of music filled the air with martial strains, 
as the line marched from ten o'clock in the morning till 
after six in the evening. 

In letters of gold on a great arch were written the 
words of Gladstone: "I think the Constitution of the 
United States represents the most admirable creation 
that has ever been produced by one effort of human 
intelligence." 

Through this arch marched the mighty columns. 
They represented with floats the progress of the people 
under the Constitution. It all seemed like an awakening 
from the sleep of Rip Van Winkle. A hundred years of 
prosperity and progress had wrought changes that people 
could hardly believe possible. Even Franklin, the 
philosopher, whose ashes lay near this very scene, did 
not conceive that the science he loved and the greatness 
of man which he believed in so thoroughly could accom- 
plish such wonders as these living pictures revealed. 

Perhaps the most marvelous changes in the hundred 
years were in the methods of transportation. Railroads 
had multiplied until about six thousand miles of tracks 
were built each year. They employed a standing force 
of three hundred and fifty thousand men, — workers in 
mines and iron factories, car builders, tie cutters, track 
layers, train men, etc. It was a great army of peace, 



CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 335 

one half, in proportion to the population, of the standing 

army kept for war in France or Germany. 

These vast railway systems of the United States were 

of immense benefit to the country. Yet it became 

necessary to make laws to prevent the companies from 

using their power unjustly. Of course if a railroad has 

its lines all within one State, it is under the control of oo 

1087 
that State; but Congress passed the Interstate Com- The interstate 

merce Act to prevent railroads which passed through ^°"""«''"=^ ^'^^ 
more than one State from charging unfair rates for carry- 
ing produce. A board of commissioners was appointed 
to hear and judge complaints against railroads that 
should disobey the law. 

There were some foreign matters of interest to the Foreign affairs 
government during the administration of President 
Cleveland, Americans, since the discovery of gold in 
California, had talked a great deal about digging a canal The Nicaragua 
across Nicaragua, but little had been done besides get- <=^"^i p'^oj^*:* 
ting the right of way from the little republic. gg 

Meantime a French company began digging across the Ferdinand de 
Isthmus of Panama, under the direction of Ferdinand de torron'the'"^ 
Lesseps, the skilful engineer who had successfully com- Panama canai 
pleted the Suez Canal. Much was expected from a ca- 
nal which would bring Asia nearer to the ports of Europe.^ 

Americans felt they should have jurisdiction over any The canai and the 
water way which could control the commerce across our Monroe doctrine 
hemisphere, and thus the Monroe doctrine came up 
again. The nations of Europe began to discuss the 
American claims. 



'The canal enterprise failed. Outrageous frauds were perpetrated. T!ie leaders 
of the Panama Company were tried in the French courts. Many were sent to prison. 
Some committed suicide. To-day the machinery of the company lies rusting in the 
marshes of the isthmus. 



336 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The fisheries 



Samoa 



Appropriations to 
increase the navy 



The war on trusts 



The department of 
labor established 



The national 
conventions 



High tariff or 
free trade? 



Now the talk about the Panama Canal, some disputes 
with Great Britain about American fishermen getting 
ice and bait on Canadian soil, and disagreement with 
Germany concerning Samoa, a group of islands in the 
Pacific, set Congress to talking about what a poor navy 
we had to defend the "Monroe Doctrine." The need of 
a better navy became so apparent that Congress appro- 
priated large sums of money to build ironclad steamers 
of the swiftest and most improved pattern. 

There was a war on "trusts." These were combina- 
tions of manufacturers, organized to keep prices up 
against cheap competition. Many bills against trusts 
were introduced in Congress. An independent depart- 
ment of labor was established ' ' to acquire and diffuse 
among the people of the United States useful information 
on subjects connected with labor, and especially upon its 
relation to capital, the hours of labor, the earnings of 
laboring men and women, and the means of promoting 
their material, social, intellectual, and moral prosperty. " 

President Cleveland strongly opposed a protective 
tariff, and at the national conventions the question of 
imports came to the front again. Grover Cleveland was 
renominated by the Democrats, with Allen G. Thurman, 
of Ohio, vice-president. 

The Republicans nominated Benjamin Harrison, of 
Indiana, and Levi P. Morton, of New York. The 
Prohibition party and two Labor parties were in the 
field. 

The campaign was very exciting; but, as usual, the 
strongest parties were the Democrats and the Repub- 
licans. The Democrats claimed that protective tariffs 
are robbery; the Republicans claimed that free trade 
puts American manufacturers in competition with the 
pauper-made products of Europe. Tariff and Free 



CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 



337 



Trade clubs were organized all over the country. The 
Democrats were divided in support of their candidate. 
President Cleveland had displeased some of them 
by not pushing the civil service laws strongly enough, 
and had made enemies of others by pushing these laws 
too far. 

Benjamin Harrison was elected the twenty-third Benjamin Harrisc 
president of the United States, with a Republican House ^''^"^d president 
and Senate. 



CHAPTER L 

BENJAMIN HARRISON (TWENTY-THIRD PRESIDENT, 
1889-1893), REPUBLICAN 

1889 
As we have seen, Indian Territory was set apart for Oklahoma opened 

Indians during the administration of President Tackson. ^°' ^«"'^™';"' 

^ J (April 22) 

The Seminoles, having much more land than they could 
ever occupy, sold Oklahoma, "the beautiful land, 
to the United States. 

When Oklahoma was opened for settlement, 
there was a rush for homesteads. On the day 
appointed for occupancy, fifty thousand people 
encamped on the borders of the territory. At 
the sound of a bugle each man hurried to 
find the best claim and stake it off. Land 
offices, set up on the prairies, were soon 
packed to overflowing with those ready to file 
their claims. 

Tents, huts, and pallets under the open sky sheltered 
the immigrants. Towns sprang up in every direction. 
In four months, Guthrie had five thousand inhabitants, omhrie and 
and was a fine town with broad avenues and handsome Oklahoma city 







BENJAMIN HARRISON 
1833-1901 



338 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The Sioux 
reservation 



1890 

Trouble with the 
Sioux Indians 



Admission of 
Montana, 

Washington, North 
Dakota, and 
South Dakota 
1890 
Idaho and Wyoming 



Homestead laws 



189I 

Contract labor laws 



business blocks, several banks, churches, street-car lines, 
electric lights, and a system of waterworks. Oklahoma 
City was almost as large as Guthrie. By December 
there were sixty thousand inhabitants in the Territory. 

The following year, when the Sioux reservation in 
South Dakota was opened for settlement, the eager 
rush for homes was repeated. 

Now these Dakota lands had been purchased from the 
Indians by the government; but it has always been 
impossible for the red men to understand the nature of 
such a transaction. The Dakota Indians only realized 
that the hunting grounds were going from them, and 
once more they rallied to save them. 

Thousands of warriors in paints and feathers held 
ghost dances to prepare for the coming of the Great 
Spirit, who would bring back the bufTalo. The frenzy 
grew until the border States were in such danger that 
United States troops scattered the tribes to the reser- 
vations. 

Meantime four new States, Montana, Washington, 
North Dakota, and South Dakota, were admitted to the 
Union. The following year, Idaho * and Wyoming^ were 
admitted. 

There was almost no unclaimed public land in Kansas 
and very little in Nebraska. To protect settlers in the 
West from speculators. Congress made stricter homestead 
laws by which only those who would occupy the land 
could file claims. 

To protect American workingmen from the immigra- 
tion of unworthy foreigners. Congress forbade criminals, 



iJn 1896 Idaho granted women equal suffrage with men by a constitu- 
tional amendment. 

^ Wyoming incorporated an equal suffrage clause in its State constitution. 



HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 339 

paupers, and laborers under contract to enter our ports. 
Those found disobeying this law were to be sent back to 
Europe at the expense of the steamship company that 
brought them over. ^g 

Chinese immigration was again forbidden for ten years; The third Chinese 
and an eight-hour labor law was passed for all employees xhe eight-hour 
of the government. labor law for 

Now a Republican Congress and a Republican presi- employees 
dent could enact laws to suit themselves. But judgment 
on their acts would be passed at the polls; and so legis- 
lators looked closely to the will of the people. It seemed 
to the Republicans that a high tariff was what the peo- TheMcKiniey 
pie wanted, and the Mc Kinley bill was passed, raising 
the tariff on almost all imported goods. 

A part of this tariff law, granting a free exchange with Reciprocity 
several European nations for certain articles not produced 
at home, carried out a reciprocity plan of James G. 
Blaine, secretary of state. 

About this time delegates from the republics of Cen- The Pan-American 
tral and South America and Mexico met our own dele- ^°°^''^^^ 
gates at Washington in a Pan-American congress. 

There had already been many efforts to unite American ^^^ 

interests. Simon Bolivar, who had helped the Spanish Boiivar attempted t& 
colonies of South America win their freedom, tried to American^aiiiance 
have a Pan-American congress. ' ' America for Ameri- 
cans " was the motto of Bolivar. But for various rea- 
sons his efforts were not successful. Other attempts to 
form a Pan-American alliance had failed. But this con- 
gress, largely due to the skill of Secretary Blaine, was 
very successful. Eighteen independent nations, includ- 
ing Haiti, were represented at Washington. A reci- Reciprocity between 

.... ijji-1 ji L the United States 

procity treaty was concluded which agreed to an exchange ^„d ^ther American 
of products. Certain articles not produced in the United republics . 
States might thus be sold without tariff at all our ports, 



340 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The islands of Samoa 



Bering Sea 
arbitration 



The Hawaiian 
question 



and, on the same terms, South American ports were 
opened to the commerce of the United States, An 
intercontinental railroad was agreed upon, and a plan 
of arbitration adopted by which matters of dispute were 
to be settled by a board of commissioners instead of 
armies. 

About this time a dispute was settled with Germany 
by arbitration. In the islands of Samoa, which were 
under a German protectorate, we have a coaling station. 
Some American residents had succeeded in setting up 
claims for an American protectorate, but the United 
States disavowed their acts. 

Disputes with Great Britain about the destruction of 
the Alaska fur seals by her sailors were also settled by 
arbitration. Thousands of seals were killed every year 
on their way through Bering Strait from one part of 
Alaska to another. Great Britain claimed that the 
seals killed were outside of American waters, and refused 
to take measures to prevent the slaughter. This ques- 
tion was decided by a jury of arbitration which gave 
protection to our seal industry, although our claim of 
control over Bering Strait was not allowed. 

The attention of the whole country was soon turned 
to Hawaii. The Sandwich Islands southwest of Califor- 
nia, with a population of about 90,000 made up the 
little kingdom of Hawaii. They are very fertile islands. 
The natives are of the Malayan race. Many years ago 
missionaries visited the islands, and labored to convert 
the people to Christianity. When British and American 
capitalists learned how profitable the sugar industry was, 
they laid out plantations and imported Japanese, 
Chinese, and Malayans to cultivate them. Before our 
Civil war, the leading enterprises were in the hands of 
Americans who urged the annexation of the islands to 



Harrison's administration 



341 



1850 



the United States. The king at that time favored an- 
nexation. But his successor had once been ejected as 
a negro from a hotel in the United States. He and his 
friends bitterly opposed annexation. " Hawaii for Ha- 
waiians " was their motto. 

After a few years the Princess Liliuokalani came to Queen Liiiuoicaiani 
the throne. When she attempted to restrict the Hber- 
ties of her subjects, they arose in rebellion. To protect 
our citizens, a detachment of American marines was 
placed about the American consulate. The queen was ^g 

deposed. A provisional government was created by a provisional 
the natives which requested the protection of the Ameri- go-— '^o^-^^ 
can consul. The American flag was placed on the 
government buildings, and the republic of Hawaii was 
recognized by most of the European powers. 

When the new republic asked to be annexed to the 
United States, President Harrison favored annexation The president 
and the majority of the Senate seemed to favor it; but ^-"-^^ -"■^"^'>°° 
before a treaty was ratified, the administration of Har- 
rison came to an end. 




MOVEMENT OF THE CENTER OF POPULATION. 

1890 

Meanwhile the census had been taken. The popula- The census 
tion of the United States was found to be over sixty- 
two and a half million. New York ranked the third 
greatest city in the world with over a million and a half 
inhabitants. Chicago was next in size in the United 



342 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The center of 
population 



The Columbian 
Centennial 
Exposition agreed 
^pon■ 



The "White City" 

on the shore 

of Lake Michigan. 



1892 
The centennial of 
the landing of 
Columbus 

(October 21) 



States with over a million. The center of population 
had moved forty miles west and nine miles north since 
the last census, and was twenty miles east ot Colum- 
bus, Ind. 

After some discussion it was agreed to celebrate the 
discovery of America by giving a World's Fair. Con- 
gress decided to locate the buildings at Chicago. That city 
was not far from the center of population. 

In Washington's administration, during a debate about 
where the national capital should be located, Fisher 
Ames said it would be near a century before the people 
of the " immeasurable wilderness " of the Ohio would 
be considerable. The Ohio valley was called in those 
times the "back pasture" of the United States; and 
now at the close of a century this back pasture was made 
the gathering place of the whole world. 

Chicago, known as the "Phoenix City" because it had 
arisen so quickly from the ashes, decided that the United 
States should not regret the choice for the location of the 
World's Fair. Rich and poor contributed to the work 
of preparing suitable grounds. In the south part of the 
city, near Lake Michigan, a space four times that of 
any other exhibition grounds was laid out into canals, 
lagoons, and gardens. Thousands of workmen paved 
avenues, spanned waters with bridges, spread miles of 
green turf, and reared palaces and castles of wonderful 
beauty. 

On the 2 1 St of October, the day that Christopher 
Columbus first landed on American soil, work on the 
buildings was suspended. President Harrison was de- 
tained in Washington by the bedside of his dying wife, 
and Vice-President Morton represented the government 
on this four hundredth anniversary. Two hundred thou- 
sand people collected in the unfinished Manufacture's 



HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 



343 



building to take part in the ceremonies. A Columbian 
hymn was sung. Eloquent addresses were made, and in 
the evening there were fine displays of fireworks. 

The following day, work on the grounds began again. 
Ships from over fifty foreign nations bore precious car- 
goes for Chicago, and the railways were burdened with 
freight. Everything was hurried to be in place by the 




fiOPULIiT/IVCAm) 



ELECTION OF 1892 



first day of May, when the fair would be formally 
opened. 

Meanwhile the national conventions presented their The national 
candidates. President Harrison was renominated by the ''°"^^""°"' 
Republicans, ex-President Cleveland was again chosen 
by the Democrats, John Bidwell was nominated by the 
Prohibitionists, and General Weaver, of Iowa, by the 
Populists, who had formed a new party, the outgrowth The PopuUst party 
of the Grangers, the Farmers' Alliance, and other or- 
ganizations for the protection of the farmer. The Popu- 
lists demanded more restriction in foreign immigration, 



344 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The Australian 
ballot system 



Grover Cleveland 
elected president 



government control of railroads, a tax on incomes, and 
the free and unlimited coinage of gold and silver at the 
ratio of i6 to i. 

The main issues of the campaign, however, were pro- 
tection and free trade. The vote at this election was 
perhaps more nearly the voice of the people than ever 
before. Several States had adopted the Australian bal- 
lot system of election, whereby the voter prepares and 
folds his ballot alone in a booth, so that no one can dic- 
tate to him, or know how he votes. The new Populist 
party developed unexpected strength at the polls, and 
cast twenty-two electoral votes from the States west of 
the Mississippi. 

Grover Cleveland was elected president for the second 
time, with both branches of Congress Democratic. 



CHAPTER LI 



189.3 

Formal opening of 
the Columbia!. 
Exposition, at 
Chicago (May i) 



GROVER CLEVELAND (TWENTY-FOURTH PRESrOENT, 
1893-1897), DEMOCRATIC 

NE of the first acts of the new 
administration was to assist in 
opening the World's Fair at 
Chicago. On the first day of 
May, surrounded by many dis- 
tinguished guests, among whom 
were the Duke of Veragua, the 
last hneal descendant of Columbus, representatives of 
foreign courts, and governors of many States, President 
Cleveland touched an electric button. Flags of all na- 
tions unfurled from the towers of the White City on the 




CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION 345 

shores of Lake Michigan, fountains leaped into the air, 
ponderous wheels went round with solemn motion, spin- 
dles and shuttles in the looms began their ceaseless toil, 
chimes rang out, artillery boomed, and bands of music 
played national airs. 

A mixture of plaster and fiber, used in constructing 
the buildings, gave the effect of purest marble, and re- 
produced the best styles of architecture known to the 
world. 

In the Court of Honor stood a golden statue of our The coun of Honor 
Republic. Near by in the peristyle was the Columbian 
group to exalt the memory of the great navigator who 
had given a New World to the Old. 

The Administration building towered above the others The Administration 
as a vestibule leading into a bewildering array of other "' '"' 
structures. Beyond the "golden door" of the Trans- The Transportation 
portation building were exhibited the methods of the "' '"^ 
world -for going by land, water, and air. Fulton, Ste- 
phenson, Watt, Ericsson, and other great inventors 
looked down from their pedestals upon the changes The Haii of Mines 
made in the last few years in methods of transportation. ''"'' '^^'"'"^ 

In the Hall of Mines and Mining stood the fig- ^ :^ 
ure of Justice, molded from the silver of Mon- 
tana. Here the white marble blocks of Greece 
and Italy stood by the colored marbles of Ten- 
nessee and Georgia. Th& granite of New En- 
gland, the coal of the Middle States, the clays 
and minerals of the South, and the gold and 
silver of the West made fine displays. All 
the methods employed in taking the pre- 
cious metals from the earth were shown 
by actual labor. 

In the Electrical building, the exhibit was 

, . THOMAS ALVA EDISON 

beyond description. A statue of Benjamin i847_ 




346 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 




NIKOLA TESLA 
1858— 



The Machinery 
building 



La Rabida 



Franklin, who " snatched the lightning from the skies," 
towered in a niche above the whole, and beneath him 
lay spread out the achievements of his disciples. 
The United States stood first in this exhibit as 
a whole, though Germany, France, and England 
excelled in some departments of applied elec- 
tricity. Germany showed a search lamp that 
had given light at Frankfort to a lawn party forty- 
five miles away, and France an arc light of two 
hundred thousand candle power. The names of 
Thomas Edison and of his student Nikola Tesla 
were spoken inmany languages at the White City. 
People said that there was no knowing what Edison, 
the "Wizard of Menlo Park," might yet do; for he 
claimed to be only on the threshold of electrical science. 
In the Machinery building, across the grand Court of 
Honor, was one engine twice tlje size of the famous 
Corliss at the Philadelphia Exposition; and the power 
that kept the machinery on the grounds moving was 
equal to twent3^-four thousand horse power. Every con- 
ceivable department of industry seemed to be represented 
in Machinery Hall, from the latest device for threading a 
needle to the giant printing press. 

The Manufactures and Fine Arts building was the 
largest in the world, sheltering over two hundred thou- 
sand people under one roof. So many things were ex- 
hibited here, that, according to a mathematician, if one 
spent five hours each day, and lost no time in eating or 
resting, one would require two hundred years to inspect 
each article two minutes. 

There were the Forestry building, the Fisheries build- 
ing, the Live Stock pavilion, and the structures set 
apart for State and national displays. 

In the quiet convent of La Rabida were kept sacred 



CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 34/ 

the relics of the great discoverer. Near by, in the lake, 

were models of the Spanish caravels, the Santa Maria, ihe santa MaHa, 

the Pinta, and the Nina, just as they appeared, four IheA^^'^r'^" 

hundred years before, when they sailed out of the harbor 

of Palos in quest of a new world. 

Near these was moored the reproduction of a Viking The viking ship 
ship with dragon-head prow, in which, it is thought, 
Leif, the son of Eric the Red, discovered the coast of 
Massachusetts many years before Columbus touched the 
shore of the West Indies. 

In the Midway Plaisance were the curious tribes and The Midway 
races of men in their villages. To stroll down a street 
in Cairo, to turn a corner in old Nuremburg, to catch a 
glimpse of Jerusalem, or venture boldly into Dahomey 
was called an every-day recreation. And then, not 
content with taking the wonderful scene piece by piece, 
the visitor entered the Ferris Wheel, and, from the glass The Ferris wheei 
windows of a parlor car suspended in the air, looked far 
down upon gardens, lakes, and pillared palaces. 

The Fair grounds became a great market place, where 
the world might buy and sell. But barter and sale was 
not the only object sought in this Columbian Centennial. 
For the first time in the history of World's Fairs, com- 
merce seemed to be second in view. 

Philosophy and the arts had high rank in the atten- The world 
tion of visitors. There were world congresses to discuss '-°°^'"®*^®^ 
music, painting, and sculpture; there was a parliament 
of religions where the disciple of the Chinese Confucius 
had an equal hearing with the Roman Catholic and the 
Lutheran Protestant. Philosophers, educators, critics, 
poets, and historians met in convention. The whole 
circle of human endeavor was widened by this coming 
together of the best that the world can give in the 
thought of to-day. 



348 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The close of the 
World's Fair 
(October 30) 



1893 
The panic 



1792 
The currency during 
Washington's 
administration 

1849 
A gold and silver 
standard 



1873 
A gold standard 



1878 
The Bland Silver bill 



When the thirtieth day of October came, all the great 
wheels ceased their turning; the fountains dripped away, 
and the noise of trumpet, drum, and human voice was 
heard no more in the White City; but the Fair had 
really only just begun its great work. 

Each departing guest took to his home the lessons he 
had learned, and taught them to others, through the 
press, the pulpit, the lecture platform, or by the quiet 
fireside. Perhaps if he were an architect he told the 
story in some grand public building, or if a painter his 
canvas took on new colors, or if he were a farmer he 
talked to his fellow farmers of better methods than their 
own for raising crops. All classes of people received 
new ideas at the World's Columbian Exposition of 1893. 

Even while the World's Fair was in progress, financial 
troubles, which soon developed into a panic, were caus- 
ing anxiety to our government. 

There were different opinions about the origin of the 
panic. Many thought it was on account of the cur- 
rency. When Alexander Hamilton was secretary of 
the treasury, gold and silver, at the ratio of fifteen to 
one, were made legal tenders in payment of debts. 
But the silver dollar was considered the standard unit 
of value until soon after the discovery of gold in Cali- 
fornia, when the gold dollar was included in the coinage; 
the standard unit of value was said to exist in both silver 
and gold dollars. 

Then Congress, as we have seen,* enacted the law 
that the gold dollar should be the standard unit of value; 
and the silver was legal tender only for debts of less than 
five dollars. 

The Bland bill, however, remonetized silver with 



•See page 321. 



CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 349 

standard silver dollars legal tender for debts except 
when otherwise stated in the contract. During Harri- g ^ 

son's administration the Sherman bill became a law. The Sherman 
This provided for the purchase of silver bullion to be ^""^"^ ^^ 
paid for in treasury notes; the silver notes to be re- 
deemed in either gold or silver. To redeem greenbacks 
and Sherman silver notes so much gold was paid out that 
it began to look as if the gold would be gone from the 
United States treasury vaults, and only the piles of silver ^g 

left. The money market became more and more a special session of 
nervous, and President Cleveland called a special session °"^^^^^ 
of Congress. After a long debate, the Sherman Silver Repeal of the 

■nil 11 Sherman Silver 

Purchase law was repealed. Purchase Act 

The financial depression continued. Shops and fac- (November i) 
tories closed. Few investments were made in any 
department of business. Thousands were thrown out 
of employment, and the wages of those still employed 
were cut down. 

Strikes began among the coal miners. Four fifths of strikes among the 
the soft coal product of the United States was stopped. '^"^•'"'""^ 
The coal strike lasted three months. Over twelve 
million dollars, were lost in wages by the miners, and 
about twenty million more by employers and other 
business men. 

There were railroad strikes, which spread through The railroad strikes 
most of the Western States to the Pacific coast. The T'^^^ '° '^' 

racinc coast 

United States mails were stopped because the inter- 
state railway traffic was destroyed. The Constitution 
gave the federal government authority over this traffic. 
Accordingly, on complaint of the post-office department, 
President Cleveland sent United States troops to President Cleveland 
Chicago. Mobs were dispersed and order was restored. ^^^^^ ^'^°°p^ ^° 

Meantime the cotton spinners and weavers of the New 
England States struck for better wages. Some factories 



350 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Strikes in the mills 
of New England 



Coxey's army 



Coxey and his 
officers arrested 



1894 



The Wilson 
Tariff bill 



were able to maintain the old rates, but many closed 
their doors because their owners were bankrupt. 

Early in the spring while the strikes were thus spread- 
ing, J. S. Coxey, of Massillon, Ohio, formed the plan of 
taking a grand industrial army to Washington to demand 
relief for the country's woes at the hands of Congress. 

Several hundred men soon rallied to his standard, and 
in March the "Commonweal army" set out on its 
journey. Other armies were formed as far west as the 
State of Washington; soon about ten thousand men were 
marching toward the capital, generally begging for food 
as they went. They were not all "tramps," however; 
many were skilled workmen, and fully two thirds of 
them were English speaking. 

They talked as they went, these recruits of the unem- 
ployed. But the way was long. Men began to drop out 
of the ranks. When the vanguards reached Washing- 
ton, they were worn out, ragged, and hungry. They 
gathered on the lawn of the capitol to listen to a speech 
from Colonel Coxey; the patrol informed them that the 
laws of the District of Columbia forbade unofficial pa- 
rades through the grounds; and when the little band 
insisted on its march, Colonel Coxey and his officers were 
arrested. In a few days Coxey's commonweal army dis- 
banded. Other armies still on the road toward Wash- 
ington became discouraged, and dispersed. And then 
the newspapers announced that the legislation of the 
country was again left to Congress where the framers of 
the Constitution intended it should be. 

The Democratic Congress passed the Wilson Tariff 
bill, lowering the tariff on some imports and placing 
several articles on the free list. The entire schedule 
averaged about a fourth lower than that of the McKinley 
bill. The Wilson bill was a compromise, but it was 



CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 351 

condemned by the extreme high tariff advocates as a 
free-trade measure, and by the extreme free-trade advo- 
cates as a protective measure. The moderate tariff fac- 
tions accepted its provisions without debate. 

Meantime foreign affairs demanded the serious atten- Hawaii 
tion of the president and Senate. First of all was the 
Hawaiian question. President Harrison, as *we have 
seen, left annexation papers to be ratified by the next 
administration, but President Cleveland did not favor 
adding more territory to the United States. 

He sent a special envoy to Hawaii who reported, when 
he returned, that the American consul at Honolulu had 
given undue aid in the revolution of the islands, and that 
American troops were keeping the rightful ruler of 
Hawaii from her throne. President Cleveland then 
ordered that until our government had determined its 
course of action in the affairs of Hawaii, the American 
flag should be removed from the public buildings, and 
the American sailors and marines should return to the 
steamer Boston, in the harbor. 

Meantime the new republic had grown strong enough The Republic 
to maintain itself without troops. The ex-queen re- *** *^^"'^» 
nounced her claims, and Hawaii became an independent 
government with its elected president and congress. 



CHAPTER LII 



Gomez and Maceo 
in the Cuban 
revolution 



1878 
Cuba agrees to 
peace with 
autonomy 
Slavery in Cuba 
abolished 



Josd Marti, 
the patriot 



GROVER CLEVELAND (1893-1897) (Continued) 
DEMOCRATIC 

Hardly had the debates about Hawaii on the west of 
us ceased, when the island of Cuba on the south of us 
demanded attention. 

Soon after our Civil war, the oppressions of the Span- 
ish government in Cuba became unbearable to the 
natives. A revolution broke out, which continued ten 
years. Among the leaders in the uprising were two 
young patriots, Gomez and Maceo. The struggle was 
so bitter that of the hundred and forty-five thousand 
troops sent from Spain to conquer the island, it is said 
not enough returned to make a single regiment. 

Then, with the hope of autonomy,, or self-government, 
somewhat after that of Canada, a treaty of peace was 
made. Slavery was abolished, and the exhausted island 
began to cultivate its fertile fields again. But the long 
war had left the population of two million with a debt of 
one hundred dollars for every man, woman; and child. 
Spain appointed new governors, who began again to 
extort money from the province by taxation, fines, 
and imprisonment. The whole island was put under 
military control. 

During the revolution, a boy of fifteen, Jose Marti, 
had been sent to Spain in chains for writing seditious 
articles for the press. Marti escaped from prison, and 
became a brilliant journalist. He sought out exiled 
Cuban patriots in the United States and South America, 
and formed them into clubs of revolutionists who swore 
to set Cuba free. Money, arms, and ammunition were 
[352] 



CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 353 

conveyed secretly to Cuba. When all was ready, the jg 

Cubans proclaimed themselves a republic, with Jose Marti proclaimed 
Marti governor. The old flags of the former revolution feJubiii^'^o°/cuba 
were brought out again, — blue and white bars with a 
red union on which is a single white star. 

Gomez was appointed commander in chief of the 
Cuban army with Maceo lieutenant general. Spain 
hurried more troops across the sea. Marti was assas- 
sinated; but war was waged until more than half of the 
island was in possession of the native Cubans. 

In February, 1896, the republic asked the United The Cubans ask 
States to grant the rights of belligerency. The request o^iS^unlTsJltes 
closed with these words: "People of the free and 
glorious United States, Cuba appeals to you. She asks 
that you raise your voice in her behalf. She asks that 
you announce to the world that, at least as against the 
tyrant, she be given an equal chance. Cuba, the bleed- 
ing, appeals to her American sisters. She does it in the 
name of God, of justice, of civilization, of America! " 
There was great enthusiasm over this appeal. Recruits 
rallied in almost every State to be ready to sail for 
Cuba. In March, Congress passed resolutions recom- Congress passes 
mending that the Cubans be given belligerent rights, and cTbltrCret' 
that the United States remain neutral, but that our "s^^s 
immense business interests on the island should be 
protected if necessary. 

President Cleveland took no action on these recom- The president 
mendations of Congress. There was much involved in 
the question. Our treaties with Spain were all that 
could be desired. On account of the filibustering expe- 
dition of Lopez, and the many attempts of our govern- 
ment to purchase the island, we had been accused by 
European powers of desiring the independence of the 
"Gem of the Antilles," that we might annex it to the 
23 



hesitates 



354 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Death of Maceo 



Venezuela and the 
Monroe doctrine 



1896 

The increase of 
the navy 



Utah admitted 
(January 4) 

The progress of 
the Indians 



United States. Conflicting reports came from Cuba. 
The republic was said to be unable to maintain itself. 
Starvation and slaughter continued. Maceo was be- 
trayed into an ambush, and killed. But Gomez took the 
field; and the cruel war went on. 

During the controversy on the Hawaiian and Cuban 
questions, the Monroe doctrine was often quoted; but in 
a threatened war between Great Britain and Venezuela 
about boundary lines, the doctrine was much more in- 
volved. President Cleveland and Congress united in 
appointing commissioners to investigate the boundary 
line between British Guiana and Venezuela. The 
president declared that whatever land should be found' 
to belong to Venezuela should be protected. Great 
Britain agreed upon five commissioners to locate the dis- 
puted line. The report of this Court of Arbitration was 
finally signed by Great Britain and Venezuela. 

All these complications with European powers caused 
Congress to urge the improvement of our coast defenses 
and the increase of our navy. Five new battle ships, 
six gunboats, sixteen torpedo boats, and one submarine 
torpedo boat were ordered to be built, thus making our 
navy rank among the strongest in the world. That same 
year Utah was admitted into the Union as the forty- 
fifth State.' 

Meantime troubles with the Indians seemed to be 
ceasing altogether. One reason for this was that many 
of the leading Indians on the reservations had gone into 
farming or " ranching " on their own account. 

The five great tribes in Indian Territory, numbering 
about ninety thousand, have always held their lands in 
common. This method of living has never been suc- 



* Utah incorporated an equal suffrage clause in its State constitution. 



CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION 355 

cessfuleven with the white race, as we have seen at 
Jamestown and Plymouth. No colony can prosper till 
its citizens have personal property interests. And the 
red men of Indian Territory, seeing this, after all these 
years, began to change their mode of life. The Creeks creeks and 
and the Choctaws signed treaties to take homesteads for homes^Jads^ 
themselves, and sell the remaining lands in their terri- 
tory to the United States. Other tribes will probably 
follow their example, and with each Indian family on 
a farm of its own, the vexed Indian question may be 
solved. 

In spite of the restrictions to foreign immigrations, Foreign 
immigrant ships were kept busy bringing Europeans to ""'"'^''^ '°° 
our shores. From the census of 1880 to that of 1890, 
over five million foreigners landed. Nearly three hun- 
dred and fifty thousand came in 1896. About three 
thousand of these were sent back as paupers and crimi- 
nals at the expense of the steamship companies. 

The majority of those who landed were of the thrifty 
laboring class who brought with them over five million 
dollars; yet more than one fourth, over fourteen years 
old, could neither read nor write. 

According to the laws of most of our States, a man 
may vote when he has become naturalized, and been a 
resident of the State long enough. So it happens that 
many thousand votes are cast on the most important 
subjects of tariff, currency, internal improvements, and 
foreign relations, by men who neither read nor write, 
and thus become the tools of scheming politicians. „ 

To remedy this defect, Congress introduced a resolu- The immigration 
tion that would practically exclude illiterate foreigners. I'oIL'glts^etocTby 
This bill provided that all immigrants over sixteen years President Cleveland 
of age who could not read or write should be sent 
back, except parents over fifty years old, or a wife, or a 



3 50 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Bimetallism and 
Monometallism 



1896 
The eleventh 
national convention 
of the Republicans 



The seventeenth 
convention of the 
Democrats 



child who is a minor, dependent on the support of a 
quahfied immigrant. The bill passed both Houses, but 
was vetoed by President Cleveland. 

Meantime the financial depression which began during 
the time of the Columbian Exposition continued. Some 
said it was caused through lack of confidence in the 
administration, others argued that the repeal of the Sher- 
man Silver Purchasing Act, and still others that the 
Wilson Tariff law was the source of the whole difficulty. 
Because there were such various opinions, there were 
several different national conventions. 

It soon became evident that the currency was the most 
important question in the minds of the people. There 
was a great deal of talk about bimetallism and mono- 
metallism. Bimetallists demanded that since gold is 
coined free and in unhmited quantities, silver should 
also be so coined, and that both should be legal tender 
in payment of all debts. Monometallists demanded that 
gold should be declared by law the sole unit of value in 
the payment of debts. 

The eleventh national convention of the Republican 
party met at St. Louis, declared opposition to the "free 
coinage of silver except by international agreement," and 
adopted the gold standard platform with William Mc- 
Kinley, of Ohio, for president, and Garret A. Hobart, of 
New Jersey, vice-president. Delegates from six silver 
States — Colorado, Montana, Idaho, Utah, Nevada, and 
South Dakota — withdrew from the convention. 

The seventeenth national convention of the Demo- 
cratic party met in Chicago, and, after a stormy session 
in which the party divided on the issues, a platform for 
a bimetallic currency was adopted with the " free and 
unlimited coinage of both silver and gold at the present 
legal ratio of 16 to i, without waiting for the aid or con- 



CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 



357 



sent of any other nation." William J. Bryan, of 
Nebraska, was nominated for president, and Arthur 
Sewall, of Maine, vice-president. 

The second national convention of the People's party 
met at St. Louis, pronounced for free silver, and 
indorsed Bryan for president, with Thomas E. Watson 
of Georgia, vice-president. The National Silver party 
met at St. Louis and indorsed Bryan and Sewall. 




°^, ; s °^M '^"^'^l ^^V^- 



"^ ^ 



I ^ReCUBLICAN (M'KINLtYl 

VAiAOCMOCfUST POPULIST (BKYJIN) 




ELECTION OF 1896 



The National Democrats, who had refused to adopt 
the silver plank in the platform of their party, met 
at Indianapolis, declared for gold monometallism and 
nominated John M. Palmer, of Illinois, president, and 
Simon B. Buckner, of Kentucky, vice-president. The 
Prohibitionists divided into two factions and put two 
candidates in nomination. 

Then followed one of the greatest political campaigns The campaign 
in the history of our country, which resulted in the 
election of the Republican ticket. 



CHAPTER LIII 



WILLIAM MCKINLEY (TWENTY-FIFTH PRESIDENT, 
1897-1901), REPUBLICAN 

The president-elect WiLLiAM Mc KiNLEV, the president-elect, was another 
self-made statesman. For lack of means he was obliged 
to quit college, and taught school until the war began. 
Enlisting in an Ohio regiment at the age of eighteen, he 
served his country during four years of the Civil war, 
and was mustered out brevet major. 

After distinguishing himself as a lawyer before the bar 
of Canton, Ohio, he was elected to Congress where he 
made his name famous, while chairman of the 
Ways and Means Committee, by introducing 
the Mc Kinley Tariff bill.' He was governor 
of Ohio for two terms, and then practiced 
law until he was named the standard bearer 
of the Republicans at the St. Louis conven- 
tion. 

At noon on the 4th of March, Garret A. 
Hobart, in the presence of the Senate and 
House of Representatives, President Cleve- 
land, President-elect Mc Kinley, and many other 
distinguished guests, was sworn into office by 
Adlai Stevenson, the retiring vice-president. 

Vice-President Hobart then assumed his place as pre- 
siding officer of the Senate, after which the new senators 
were sworn into office. When Congress adjourned, it 
was to witness the remaining inaugural ceremonies. 
On a platform in front of the capitol and in the pres- 




WILLIAM MCKINLEY 
1843-1901 



1897 
Garret A. Hobait 
sworn into the office 
of vice-president 
(March 4) 



1 See page 339. 
[358] 



MC KINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



359 




GARRET A. HOBART 
1844-1899 



ence of a vast audience, Chief Justice Fuller adminis- The inauguration ot 
tered to William Mc Kinley the oath of office as president '^*^^' ^" *^ '" ^^ 
of the United States. The executive cabinet was soon 
announced with John Sherman, of Ohio, secretary of The cabinet 
state; Lyman J. Gage, of Illinois, secretary of the 
treasury; Russell A. Alger, of Michigan, secre- 
tary of war; Joseph McKenna, of California, 
attorney general; James A. Gary, of Maryland, 
postmaster general; John D. Long, of Massa- 
chusetts, secretary of the navy; Cornelius 
N. Bliss, of New York, secretary of the in- 
terior; and James Wilson, of Iowa, secre- 
tary of agriculture 

Forty-five States and three organized 
Territories, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Ari- 
zona, were represented in the legislative depart- 
ment. In the Senate at the opening of the first 
regular session of the Fifty-fifth Congress there were The senate 
ninety members; but the seat of one member from Ore- 
gon was vacant. Of these, thirty-four were Demo- 
crats,^ forty-seven Republicans,^ and eight Independents. 

In the House of Representatives were three hundred The House 
and fifty-seven members, elected from congressional dis- 
tricts, each district containing about 173,900 inhabit- 
ants.^ One hundred and thirty-one were Democrats, * 
two hundred Republicans,^ with one vacancy, and twenty- 
six Independents.® The Speaker, or presiding officer of 
this body, was Thomas B. Reed, of Maine, who was Thomas b. Reed 
re-elected by a vote of the House, 

^Twenty-nine were Silver Democrats. 

2 Five Populists, two Silver Republicans, one Independent. 

3 The ratio of representation at the first Congress, 1789, was one rep- 
resentative for 30,000 persons. 

* One hundred and twenty-nine were Silver Democrats. 

^Ten were Silver Republicans. 

^Fifteen Populists; eleven Democratic Populists 



re-elected Speaker 




PRESIDENT MC KINLEY'S CABINET 



John D. Long, 

of Massachusetts, 

Navy. 



Cornelius N. Bliss.i 

of New York, 

Interior. 



Lyman J. Gage, 
of Illinois, 
Treasury. 

Joseph McKenna,4 

of California, 

Attorney General. 



John Sherman, 2 
of Ohio, 
State. 

James Wilson, 

of Iowa, 

Agriculture. 



Russell A. Alger.i 
of Michigan, 
War. 

James A. Gary,'* 

of JVlaryland, 
Postmaster General. 



1 Succeeded by Ethan Allen Hitchcock, of Missouri. 

2 Succeeded by Judge William R. Day, of Ohio, who was succeeded by John Hay 
of the District of Columbia. 

3 Succeeded by Elihu Root, of New York. 

* Succeeded by John W. Griggs, of New Jersey. 

' Succeeded by Charles Emory Smith, of Pennsylvania. 

360 



MC KINLEY's ADMINISTRATION 36 1 

The members of the Judiciary were Chief Justice The judiciary 
Melville W. Fuller, of Illinois, and Associate Justices, 
Stephen J. Field, ^ of California; John M. Harlan, of 
Kentucky; Horace Gray, of Massachusetts; John J. 
Brewer, of Kansas; Henry B. Brown, of Michigan; 
George Shiras, Jr., of Pennsylvania; Edward D. White, 
of Louisiana; and Rufus W. Peckham, of New York. 

Immediately after his inauguration. President Mc Kin- The special session 
ley summoned a special session of the Fifty-fifth Con- qq' ^^^5'^ 
gress to revise the Wilson Tariff law. (Marchis tojuiy24i 

A new tariff bill, called the Dingley bill, because it 
was presented by Nelson Dingley, Jr., of Maine, chair- The Dingiey tariff 
man of the Ways and Means Committee, was passed, ^'" ^''/TT'^a ) 
which provided not only for revenue, but also for the 
protection of American industries. The Dingley bill 
increased the tariff on many imported articles, and 
put many on the dutiable list which were free in the 
Wilson bill. 

Congress made an appropriation of $50,000 for the congress appropn- 
relief of destitute citizens of the United States in dlTti!u°eTmMicans 
warring Cuba. '" Cuba (May 24) 

Among the bills passed during the special session of ^g g 

the Congress was that authorizing foreign exhibitors at The Omaha Trans- 
the Trans-Mississippi and International Exposition to in'trrnat^onr" 
bring to the United States foreign laborers for the pur- Exposition 
pose of preparing exhibits.^ 

The chief object of this Exposition, held at Omaha, 
Neb., was to show the resources of the States beyond 
the Mississippi. The display proved to be only second 
in importance to that of the Columbian Exposition at 
Chicago, the food products and electrical appliances sur- 
passing those of all previous American Expositions. 

1 Justice Field retired December, 1897, and was succeeded by Joseph 
Mc Kenna, the attorney general. 

^See, for law concerning foreign contract labor, page 338. 



362 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The president 
appoints delegates 
to an Anglo- 
American joint high 
commission 

(July i6) 



The kingdom of 
Samoa given 
independence 
under a joint 
protectorate 

(June 14) 



1894 
The death of the 
Samoan king causes 
international 
disputes 

(August 22) 



President Mc Kinley appointed commissioners to meet 
and treat with an equal number of Canadian commission- 
ers concerning pelagic seal rights, American fisheries in 
Canadian waters, and other disputed questions between 
the United States and Canada, chief of which was the 
boundary line between Alaska and British America.' 
Great Britain claimed that Russia had misinterpreted 
the treaty of 1825; and that the dividing line between 
Russian Alaska and British America, with an extreme 
inland limit of thirty miles from the sea, should not 
have followed the coast indentations so closely. 
The Canadian commissioners made a demand for a sea- 
port north of 54"^ 40'. The American commissioners 
were not willing to concede the claim of Great 
Britain to a part of the seacoast of Alaska, and the 
joint high commission, without arriving at a settlement 
of any of the vexed questions, adjourned to meet the 
following year. 

Meantime Samoa, the little kingdom in the South Pa- 
cific Ocean, midway between Hawaii and New Zealand, 
where the United States own a naval station, again de- 
manded attention." Representatives of Great Britain, 
Germany, and the United States had agreed upon the 
independence of Samoa under joint protection of the 
three powers. 

On the death of Malietoa, king of Samoa, two 
claimants appeared for the throne. Mataafa, whose 
pretension was supported by Germany, was elected by 
the islanders. Malietoa's direct heir, supported by Great 
Britain and the United States, contested the election, 
and the issue was decided in his favor by Chief Justice 
Chambers, an American. The followers of Mataafa 



1 See map of territorial growi 

2 See page 340. 



■th. 



Mc kinley's administration 



363 



thereupon attacked some American and British sailors; 
Judge Chambers fled for protection to a British cruiser. 

For a time war with Germany seemed imminent; but 
a commission appointed by the three powers to adjust 
the difficulties finally agreed to abolish the office of king, The republic of 
and establish a republic with a governor and a legislature Samoa proposed 
elected by popular vote, while a council of three, one 
member from pach of the three powers, should act as an 
advisory board for the governor. 

The most important question oefore the Fifty-fifth The first regular 
Congress, at its first regular session, was that of Cuba, ^"gj"" pe^mber^ 
The Fifty-fourth Congress, as we have seen, recom- 




mended that our government actively use its influence 
to restore peace and give independence to the suffering 
island. The Republicans had declared in the party 
platform, upon which President Mc Kinley had been 
elected, that, since the Spanish crown seemed unable 
to protect the lives and property of American citizens in 
Cuba, our government should interfere to end the war. 
Accordingly, President Mc Kinley protested against the 
policy of General Weyler, military commander of Cuba, 
who had issued an order concentrating the peasants of 
four provinces, Havana, Matanzas, Santa Clara, and 
Pinar del Rio, in the military towns, where they were 
starving at the rate of several thousand a day. 



3^4 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 




QUEEN MARIA CHRISTINA 



Sagasta becomes 
premier of Spain 
(October 2) 



Spain promises 
autonomy to Cuba 
and Porto Rico 
(November 27) 



The Maine arrives 
at Havana 

(January 26) 




ALFONSO XIII 



In April Maria Christina, the queen regent of Spain 
during the minority of Alfonso XIII, signed a decree 
granting reforms in Cuba. Soon after this con- 
cession, Canovas, the Conservative premier of 
Spain, was assassinated at Madrid, and Sagasta, 
the leader of the Liberals, became premier. 

General Weyler was recalled and General Blanco 
became the military ruler of Cuba. Spain indi- 
- cated that it would be agreeable if the chari- 
table people of the United States would aid the 
starving peasants, who, although permitted by Gen- 
eral Blanco to return to their homes, were without 
food and proper clothing. Many thousand dollars were 
immediately subscribed for a relief fund, and Clara Bar- 
ton, the head of the Red Cross Society, went to 
Cuba to direct the distribution of the supplies sent to 
Havana. 

Autonomy, or self-government, was soon after officially 
promised to Cuba and Porto Rico, but the Cubans, hav- 
ing been so often deceived with vain promises, refused 
to lay down their arms. The proposed new government, 
as well as the generous aid from the United States, was 
opposed by many resident Spaniards, and when these 
gathered in mobs at Havana to threaten resident Ameri- 
cans, Consul General Fitzhugh Lee requested that a 
war ship be sent to protect them. 

It was agreed with Spain that an exchange of 

friendly visits should be made between Cuba and 

the United States. Accordingly, the cruiser 

Maine, Captain Sigsbee, was sent to Havana, and 

the Vizcaya was ordered to New York. 

About this time De Puy de Lome, the Span- 
ish minister at Washington, wrote a letter to a 
friend in Havana, speaking in the most insulting 



MCKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



365 



Senor de Lome's 
letter published 
( February 8) 

Destruction of the 
Maine (February 15) 



Congress votes 



manner of President Mc Kinley. The letter came to 
the notice of the government, and its pubhcation led 
to the resignation of Senor de Lome. 

On the night of February 15, a week after the appear- 
ance of the offensive letter, the Maine, at anchor in 
Havana harbor, was cut in two by a double explosion. 
Two officers and two hundred and sixty-four men were 
killed and sixty were wounded. 

A board of inquiry, appointed by the naval department, appropriations for 

,,,, !!• 1 111 1- r national defense 

declared that the ship was destroyed by the explosion 01 (March?) 

a submarine mine with no evidence fixing the re- 
sponsibility for the destruction. Both nations 
anticipated war, and began to prepare for it. 

Congress voted $50,000,000 for national de- 
fense; and two new regiments of artillery were 
authorized to be organized for the harbor forts. 

Spain began to strengthen the fortified towns 
in the West Indies, and concentrate at Cape 
Verde Islands a squadron in command of 
Admiral Cervera. 

Meantime Senators Proctor and Thurston and 
other distinguished statesmen visited Cuba to as- 
certain the truth of the reports concerning the suffering 
of the peasants. When they declared that nearly a half 
million Cubans had died of starvation, pestilence, and 
war since the beginning of their struggle for independ- 
ence, and that a quarter of a million more were dying, The president asks 
President Mc Kinley sent a message to Congress asking 
authorization to take measures to terminate hostilities 
between the government of Spain and the people of 
Cuba. 

"The grounds of intervention," said the president, The grounds of 
"may be briefly summarized as follows: — 

' ' First, In the cause of humanity, and to put an end 




CLARA BARTON 
1830 



Congress to take 
measures to termi- 
nate hostilities 
between Spain 
and Cuba 

(April 11) 



intervention 



366 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The cause of 
humanity 



Protection of Ameri- 
can citizens resident 
in Cuba 



Protection to Ameri- 
can commerce 



A semi-war footing 
with a war nation 
with which we are 
at peace 



to the barbarities, bloodshed, starvation, and horrible 
miseries now existing there, and which the parties to 
the conflict are either unable or unwilling to stop or miti- 
gate. It is no answer to say this is all in another coun- 
try, belonging to another nation, and is, therefore, none 
of our business. It is especially our duty, for it is right 
at our door. 

" Second, We owe it to our citizens in Cuba to afford 
them that protection and indemnity for life and property 
which no government there can or will afford, and to 
that end to terminate the conditions that deprive them 
of legal protection. 

"Third, The right to intervene may be justified by 
the very serious injury to the commerce, trade, and busi- 
ness of our people, and by the wanton destruction of 
property and devastation of the island. 

"Fourth, and which is of the utmost importance, 
The present condition of affairs in Cuba is a constant 
menace to our peace, and entails upon this government 
an enormous expense. With such a conflict waged for 
years in an island so near us, and with which our people 
have such trade and business relations; where the lives 
and liberty of our citizens are in constant danger and 
their property destroyed and themselves ruined; where 
our trading vessels are liable to seizure, and are seized at 
our very door by war ships of a foreign nation, the expe- 
ditions of filibustering that we are powerless altogether 
to prevent, and the irritating questions and entangle- 
► ments thus arising, — all these and others that I need 
not mention, with the resulting strained relations, are a 
constant menace to our peace, and compel us to keep on 
a semi-war footing with a war nation with which we are 
at peace." 

On April 19 the following joint resolutions were 
passed by Congress : — 



Mckinley's administration 367 

"W/iereas, the abhorrent conditions which have pre- The joint resolutions 
vailed more than three years in the island of Cuba, so °f congress for the 

•' ' recognition of Cuban 

near our own borders, have shocked the moral sense of independence 
the people of the United States, have been a disgrace to ^" '^ 

Christian civilization, culminating, as they have, in the 
destruction of a United States battle ship, with two hun- 
dred and sixty of its officers and crew, while on a friendly 
visit to the harbor of Havana, and can not longer be 
endured, as has been set forth by the president of the 
United States in his message to Congress of April 11, 
1898, upon which the action of Congress was invited; 
therefore, be it resolved,— 

' ' First, That the people of the island of Cuba are, 
and of right ought to be, free and independent, 

"Second, That it is the duty of the United States 
to demand, and the government of the United States 
does hereby demand, that the government of Spain at 
once relinquish its authority and government in the 
island of Cuba, and withdraw its land and naval forces 
from Cuba and Cuban waters. 

' ' Third, That the president of the United States be. The president em- 
and he hereby is, directed and empowered to use the en- powered to use the 

army and navy to 

tire land and naval forces of the United States, and to call secure the freedom 
into the actual service of the United States the militia 
of the several States to such an extent as may be neces- 
sary to carry these resolutions into effect. 

"Fourth, That the United States hereby disclaims The United states 
any disposition or intention to exercise sovereignty, iuris- '''^'^'^""^ ^"^ '"; 

■^ ^ o ./ ' J tention to exercise 

diction, or control over said island, except for the pacifi- sovereignty over 
cation thereof, and asserts its determination when that is 
accomplished to leave the government and control of the 
island to its people." 

, . , 1-1 • 1 The president signs 

Immediately upon hearing that President Mc Kinley the joint resolutions 
had signed this resolution, the Spanish minister at Wash- °^ ^° T "^ ^o) 



368 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Minister Woodford 

is given his passports 

(April 2i) 

President Mc Kinley 
issues a call for 
volunteers 

(April 23) 




A blockade of Cuban 
ports proclaimed 
(April 22) 



Acting Rear- 
Admiral Sampson, 
of the North Atlantic 
Squadron ; Commo- 
dore Schley, of the 
Flying Squadron; 
Commodore Dewey, 
of the Asiatic 
Squadron 

Spain formally 
declares war 

(April 24) 
Congress resolves 
that a state of war 
has existed since 
April 21 

(April 25) 



ington demanded his passports. Minister Woodford, at 
Madrid, received notice that diplomatic relations between 
Spain and the United States must cease. 

President Mc Kinley, considering the dismissal of the 
American minister equivalent to a declaration of war, 
issued a call for 125,000 volunteers from the States 
and Territories, to be apportioned according to their 
population. 

The response was enthusiastic; many thousand more 
than were asked volunteered. Theodore Roose- 
velt, of New York, resigned his position as as- 
sistant secretary of the navy to organize a cavalry 
regiment which was placed under command of 
Colonel Leonard Wood, and became known as 
Roosevelt's Rough Riders, because many 
"cowboys" from the Western cattle ranches 
joined its ranks. Colonel Terry, of Arizona, 
rallied another regiment of Rough Riders; many 
MILES wealthy citizens contributed yachts, fitted out com- 
panies, or supplied hospitals with comforts. 
The regular army of about 25,000, in commgind of 
Major-General Nelson A. Miles, was increased to 62,000 
men, and ordered to assemble in camps for drill; a block- 
ade of the north coast of Cuba, and Cienfuegas on the 
south coast was proclaimed; Captain Sampson, of the 
squadron at Key West, was made acting rear-admiral in 
command of the North Atlantic Squadron; Commojdore 
Schley was in command of the Flying Squadron, and Com- 
modore Dewey of the Asiatic Squadron. 

On April 24, Spain formally declared war. The fol- 
lowing day Congress resolved that a state of war had 
existed since April 21, the day Minister Woodford re- 
ceived his passports from the premier of Spain. 

Congress authorized the issue of $400,000,000 in bonds 



MC KINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



369 



to help pay the cost of the war/ and passed a revenue The war 
bill placing a tax upon various articles and imposing '^^^^°"«'»^ 
a stamp tax on express receipts, bank checks, tele- 
grams, etc. 

All things were made ready as swiftly as possible to 
prosecute the war with Spain by land and by sea. 



CHAPTER LIV 



WILLIAM MCKINLEY (1897- 
REPUBLICAN. 



-) (Continued) 



After the declaration of war between Spain and the 
United States, several of the foreign powers proclaimed 
neutrality. England, being one of the neutrals, notified 
her consul at Hong-Kong that Commodore Dewey's 
Asiatic fleet must not remain at Hong-Kong, where 
she held a lease. 

On arriving at Mirs Bay, the commodore was 
informed that China was also a neutral, and would 
not allow his fleet to linger within her waters. 

Now it was known that a formidable Spanish 
fleet was off the Philippine Islands, which 
would destroy American merchantmen; and just 
about the time that Commodore Dewey was in- 
vited out of Mirs Bay, he received orders to find the ^SgS 

o • 1 n i J i 1 i -i Commodore Dewey 

Spanish fleet and capture or destroy it. is ordered away 

Accordingly he hastened to Manila, the capital city of from the pons 

° ■' . ^ . -^ of neutrals 

the Philippines, near which he had reason to believe the 
Spanish ships were anchored. 

On the night of April 30 his fleet lay outside Manila Dewey reaches 
Bay." It included the Olynipia^ the flagship, Captain 




GEORGE DEWEY 

1837 



Manila Bay 

(April 3<^ 



' Only half the amount was actually issued. ^For map of the bay see p. 381. 
24 



370 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



SAMAH , 



The battle of 
Manila Ray 
(May i) 



Gridley; Boston, Captain Wildes; Concord^ Commander 
Walker; Petrel, Commander Wood; Raleigh, Captain 
Coghlan; Baltimore, Captain Dyer, a revenue cutter, 
and two supply vessels. All the ships were unarmored 
except the Olynnpia, which was protected around the 
turret guns. 

It seemed a hazardous undertaking to enter. 
Mines quite as destructive as those which had 
wrecked the Maine were known to have been 
laid; the water was shallow in many places, 
and the entrance was supposed to be 
guarded by Krupp guns. 
But the commander was fearless, 
and his men were willing to fol- 
low him into the death trap. 
The night was cloudy. All lights 
were put out except one small 
lamp at the stern of each ship 
to warn those behind from 
coming too near. 
With the Olyuipia in the lead, the 
ships glided silently past Corregidor 
Island and entered the bay. To 
the southwest of Manila, whose early 
morning lights were beginning to glimmer through the 
gray dawn, lay the Spanish squadron. As the sun rose, 
the batteries of Manila and Cavite opened fire. The 
Olympia sailed steadily on, though mines were exploded 
around her. When the six principal ships were within 
effective range, they ran, one behind the other and par- 
allel with the enemy's line, pouring broadsides upon 
their decks. 

Five times, in single file, they passed, always drawing 
nearer; and so swift was the maneuvering and so deadly 




MC KINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



371 



Cavite and 



surrender (May 2) 



Guam captured by 



the aim of the port guns that, about noon, Admiral Mon- 
tojo signaled his captains to scuttle and abandon their 
vessels. 

When the smoke of battle cleared away, it was found 
that the entire Spanish fleet of ten ships and several 
small craft were lost, with over six hundred men killed. 
On the American side not one ship was disabled nor one 
man killed. The engagement was conceded by European 
nations to be one of the most remarkable in naval annals. 
The following day the forts of Cavite and Corregidor fj;;„^Jt°'J,tv"!, 
Island surrendered. 

A few weeks later, Captain Glass, on the Charleston, 
took possession of Guam, the largest of the Ladrones, a "^""^'Tr^'g^^^n 
group of Spanish islands situated about a thousand miles 
east of the Philippines. After placing an American in 
command, Captain Glass carried the Spanish garrison to 
the Philippines as prisoners of war. 

Meanwhile Admiral Cervera had sailed myste- 
riously from Cadiz. When it was learned that he 
had left the Cape Verde Islands, American cruisers 
scoured the sea in search of his fleet. The ships 
were finally sighted off Venezuela, then lost again. 
It was feared they might be among the Wind- 
ward Islands lying in wait for the battle ship Ore- 
go7t, Captain Clark, which was on her way from ^ j sampson 

California to Florida. ' 1 840-1902 

1898 
Finally it was reported that Cervera's fleet was head- Admiral Sampson 

ing for Porto Rico. Admiral Sampson sailed to San Juan, ""^ ''(May'',")""' 

and bombarded the forts in the harbor, but the Spanish 

admiral was not there. 

When a rumor that Cervera's fleet was coaling in the Cervera's fleet 

harbor of Santiago de Cuba seemed to be confirmed by slndlgo*" 

official reports, the squadrons of Schley and Sampson 

were united to keep it there. The guns of Morro Castle 





RICHMOND P. 

1870 



HOBSON 



Guantanamo Bay 
seized (June lo) 




NATIONAL PROGRESS 

prevented near approach to the shore, and fear- 
ing that Cervera might escape in the night, Ad- 
miral Sampson decided to attempt to block up 
the narrow neck of the harbor. 

Accordingly, Assistant Naval Constructor Rich- 
mond P. Hobson and seven picked men volun- 
teered to sink the collier Merriniac across the 
opening. Setting out before dawn, the sailors 
reached the allotted position, but a cannon 
shot carried away the rudder of the collier 
so that she could not be swung sufficiently into 
place to bar the entrance. The dauntless crew 
escaped from the sinking Merrimac only 
to be taken prisoners by the Spaniards. 

Days passed. The American fleet 
lay on guard beneath the Morro of 
Santiago, with an occasional bombard- 
ment along the coast. Guantanamo 
Bay was seized for a naval station; 
cables connecting Santiago with 
Mole St. Nicholas were grappled 
and cut, and then those between San- 
tiago and Havana, and Havana and Eu- 
rope, so that what with the loss of these modern 
means of communication and the blockade, which 
prevented ships from entering her harbors, 
Cuba seemed as far away from Spain as when 
Columbus first entered her harbors. 

Meantime General Maximo Gomez, com- 
mander in chief of the insurgent Cubans, 
with headquarters at Santa Clara, was car- 
rying on a ceaseless guerrilla war with the 
Spanish troops. Gomez urged co-operation 
between the American and Cuban land 




WM R SHAFTER 
1835 



MAXIMO GOMEZ 



MC KINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



373 



forces. Accordingly, Major-General Shafter, with an General shafter 
army organized at Tampa, sailed for Santiago. '^'^ ^(7une"i"7° 

At a conference between Admiral Sampson, General The debarkation at 
Shafter, and the Cuban general, Calixto Garcia, a united ^"i"'" 
land and naval attack upon Santiago was planned. 
The American troops were debarked from trans- 
ports at Daiquiri and adjacent landings. 

Siboney was occupied by a detachment of 
troops under General Joseph Wheeler, second 
in command. The hill of La Guasima, near 
Sevilla, was taken; the blockhouse of El 
Caney was captured, and San Juan was 
stormed successfully. The hills along San 
Juan River, a mile and a half from Santiago, 
were soon occupied by the Americans, while 
the Cubans were guarding the approaches to the 
northwest of them. 

It had been thought best to secure the Aguinaido at CavUe 
Philippine Islands, and hold them for a 
possible war indemnity. Admiral 
Dewey permitted Aguinaido, a ban- 
i ished Filipino insurgent, to land at 
Cavite, and assemble an army to assist 
in capturing Manila, the capital. 
Aguinaido, after winning several vic- 
tories over the Spanish troops in 




CALIXTO Garcia 







WESLEY MERRITT 

1836 



Aguinaido proclaims 
a republic under the 
protection of the 

the province of Cavite, proclaimed United states 
the independence of the Philippines ""^^ 

under the protection of the United 
States. 



Meantime President Mc Kinley issued a 
call for 75,000 additional volunteers, and appointed Gen- 
eral Wesley Merritt military governor of the islands with Philippine islands 
an army of 15,000. (Mayn) 



General Merritt 
appointed military 
governor of the 



374 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Admiral Camara's 
fleet sails for the 
Philippines; but 
returns to Cadiz 



While General Merritt was hastening westward with 
re-enforcements, Admiral Camara was sailing eastward 
from Cadiz. When our government ascertained that 
the Spanish fleet was bound for the Philippines, orders 
were issued from Washington for Commodore Watson to 
proceed to Spain with a division of the North Atlantic 
fleet. The fear of Watson's attack upon the coast 
cities, together with England's refusal to allow coaling 
at Port Said, at the entrance of Suez Canal, caused 
Admiral Camara to return to Cadiz. The Span- 
ish army in the Philippine Islands was thus 
left without aid, and Manila was soon sur- 
rounded by Admiral Dewey's ships and the 
troops of General Merritt and Aguinaldo. 
Meantime the investment of Santiago con- 
tinued. A report that General Pando was 
sending re-enforcements from Havana to 
General Toral caused the utmost haste to 
occupy the city. The line of siege was 
drawn closer; the battle ships ventured 
''°M''!l^ron!'"^'' nearer and nearer until within two miles from 

1 Bob — 1 VUo 

the harbor's mouth lay the armored cruisers AVtc York, 
Captain Chadwick, and Brooklyn, Captain Cook; the 
The vigil before the first-class battle ships lozua. Captain Evans; Oregon, 
harbor of Santiago Q^p^^jj^ C\7irk\ and Indiana, Captain Taylor; and the 
second-class battle ship Texas, Captain Philip; while 
lighter craft were watching still nearer shore for the 
least movement of the enemy. At night, one battle 
ship, supported by a comrade with broadside turned and 
guns pointed, swung a search light which illuminated 
the mouth of the harbor and the steep gray walls of the 
Morro. 

Early in the morning of July 3 news came to the ships 
of heavy losses among the fighting land forces. Admi- 




MC KINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



375 



ral Sampson had started on the flagship New York for a The navai battle of 
conference with General Shafter at Siboney, when Hght Santiago (juiy 3) 
puffs of smoke betrayed the advance of the enemy. 
Almost immediately after, the long black nose of the 
Spanish flagship Maria Teresa came to view. Admiral 




Schley, in command of the flagship Brooklyn,^ ordered 
the American ships to clear for action. When the Te- 
resa turned swiftly westward, followed by the Viscaya, 
Colon, Oquendo, and the destroyers Fjiror ^r\A Phitott, — 
all flying the red and yellow ensigns of war, — the Brook- 
lyn and the Iowa dashed forward in a chase ; the Oregon, 
the Indiana, and the Gloucester, Captain Wainwright, 
turned, pouring shot and shell as they ran. 

The Teresa, Oquendo, and Viseaya were soon 
beached. The Furor and Pluton were sunk by 
the Gloucester. The Colon, pursued by the 
Brooklyn, Oregon, and Texas, ran to the beach 
of Acerraderos, about fifty miles from San- 
tiago, and hauled down her colors. Only one 
American was killed, and none of the ships 
disabled when the signal, "The enemy has 
surrendered," fluttered from Acting Admiral 
Schley's flagship. 

Admiral Sampson arrived in time to receive the sword Admiral cervera 
of Admiral Cervera; and Spain's naval power in the 5^^^^^ ''"^ '"^ 
Western Hemisphere was ended. 

Lieutenant Hobsoo 

Lieutenant Hobson and his associates were soon after and his associates 
exchanged for Spanish prisoners. ''''"^7jui 6) 




WINFIELD S. SCHLEY 
)839 



376 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Santiago occupied 
(July 17) 



General Shafter demanded the surrender of Santiago. 
General Toral refused to agree to the proposed terms. 
The firing from the trenches surrounding the city con- 
tinued until July 11, when a flag of truce was raised. 

General Toral surrendered Santiago and its entire 



General Miles sails 
for Porto Rico 
(July 21) 



Guanica, Yauco, and 
Ponce occupied 

A peace protocol 
signed at 
Washington 

(August 12) 





,^.i__^______^./^ Ocean 




/"^^dilt'lk/ Arecibo ^ i ■ ""V" ' ^*''2!2tefei3fe5-^''''V^ 


^§^^^^k^^ 




i 


5. 3 




r ^ - r y4 • f « -i- >on,;,„ 


^ ' H B t A N -"^ 



military district, with about 25,000 Spanish soldiers. 
On July 17, the city was occupied by the Americans. 
A few days later General Miles, commanding general 
of the army of the United States, left Guantanamo Bay 
for Porto Rico. Guanica and Yauco were entered with- 
out resistance from the inhabitants, who appeared eager 
to throw off the Spanish rule. Port Ponce was occupied 
by the ships, and the city near its shore welcomed the 
army with bands of music. From Ponce the main line 
of the army proceeded along the great military road to 
San Juan, the capital. 

The Spanish troops were retreating from city to city, 

when hostilities ceased with 
the announcement of a peace 
protocol signed at Washing- 
ton by the representatives of 
Spain and the United States. 
By the terms of the pro- 
tocol Porto Rico, the " Gate 
of the Antilles," was surren- 



HA WA U 




MC KINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 



377 



dered to the United States, and, on August 17, the stars PonoRico 

and stripes were officially raised over the government [rAfunUedstt'es^ 

buildings at San Juan. (August 17) 

Now, at the beginning of hostilities, the government 
of Hawaii had been warned by Spain to publish a decla- The republic of 
ration of neutrality. This the little republic refused to aiHanc'e Juh the 
do, not only upholding the policy of the United States, United states 
but permitting their war ships to coal at Honolulu. Such 




GOVERNMENT BUILDING, HONOLULU 



a course of action exposed the islands to an attack from 
Spain; and when the Hawaiian legislature asked the 
United States to annex the islands to their territory, 
Congress passed a joint resolution approving the request. 
The transfer of sovereignty was accordingly made, the 
Hawaiian government, as organized, continuing until 
Congress might frame another government more in har- 
mony with our Constitution. 

Now when the peace protocol with Spain was signed 
on August 12, at four o'clock p. m. in Washington, it was 
August 13, about five o'clock a. m. in Manila. On that 



Hawaii annexed to 
the territory of the 
United States 
{August 12) 



Manila bombarded 
(August 13) 



378 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Manila formally 
surrenders 

(August is) 



^0/fe/Of^ ^ufT 



morning Admiral Dewey and General Merritt, knowing 
nothing about the armistice, were making preparations 
for a united attack upon Manila. The squadron moved 
up from Cavite and fired the first shot at the fortifica- 
tions. The army captured Malate, and occupied the 
ramparts of the city. fhe Spanish governor general 
surrendered unconditionally to General Merritt, who 
immediately issued a proclamation declaring that he 
had come not as a conqueror, but a 
protector. 

General Elwell S. Otis succeeded 
General Merritt in the military com- 
mand of the Philippines. General 
MacArthur was appointed commandant 
of Manila and General Anderson of 
Cavite. Aguinaldo, however, with 
headquarters at Bacoor, issued procla- 
mations calling himself president of 
the republic of the Philippines, and 
the residents of Manila were in con- 
stant dread of plundering insurgents. 
On December lO, the final treaty 
of peace between Spain and the United 
States was signed by their representatives at Paris. 
Spain (i) relinquished all claim to Cuba; (2) ceded to 
the United States Porto Rico and the other Spanish 
islands in the West Indies, and the island of Guam, in 
the Ladrones; (3) ceded to the United States the Phil- 
ippine Islands, and surrendered all claims against that 
archipelago for the sum of $20,000,000. 

Congress met in regular session on December 6. 
When the provisions of the treaty were made known, 
begins (December 6) opinion was SO divided concerning the acquisition of the 
Philippines that weeks passed before the treaty was 
ratified. 




The final treaty of 
peace between 
Spain and the 
United States 
signed at Paris 
(December lo) 



The second regular 
session of the 
Fifty-fifth Congress 



Mckinley's administration 379 

Meantime the Filipinos had become distrustful of the Aguinaido, as 
military occupation of the United States. Aguinaido, phinpprnele^pubiic, 
who still proclaimed himself president of the Philip- sendsan envoy to 

Washington 

pine republic, sent Agoncillo to Washmgton as his 
representative. 

President Mc Kinley appointed a commission to exam- 
ine into the pretensions of Aguinaido, and, pending their 
report, withheld official recognition of his envoy. Agon, 
cillo thereupon began to foment the irritation of his Agonciiioat 

... . - . Washington 

countrymen by reportmg the bitter debates in Con- 
gress, and, it is said, advised an attack upon the army 
for the purpose of influencing Congress to refuse a rati- 
fication of the treaty. 

General Otis, anticipating an outbreak, appointed General ctis 
three commissioners to confer with a similar number missToVto confer 
of Filipinos named by Aguinaido, for the purpose of with the represema- 

. lives of Aguinaido 

coming to some agreement which would permit the 
organization of a stable government. 

The three Filipinos would listen to nothing but the 
recognition of absolute independence. They demanded 
that the army be withdrawn immediately, but the navy 
was to remain to protect them from foreigners. 

The American commissioners explained that, by the 
treaty at Paris, Spain, who had been responsible to the 
other powers for the protection of the life and property 
of their resident citizens, was no longer held responsible; 
that the transfer of the islands to the United States was 
also a transfer of responsibilities of government. If 
the army and navy were both withdrawn, foreign pow- 
ers would consider the United States as acting in bad 
faith. If the army were withdrawn, and our navy alone The joint com- 
remained, the United States, in thus assuming a respon- ^'rel°"o^terms 
sibility for a government without having a voice in its p^posed 
laws, might become involved in wars with other nations. 



38o 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The beginning of 
hostilities between 
Aguinaldo's forces 
and the Americans 
(February 4) 



Caloocan occupied 
February 10) 




EMILIO AGUINALDO 



Congress ratifies 
the treaty with 
Spain (February 6) 

Malolos occupied 
(March 31) 



San Fernando 
(May 5) 
Angeles (August 16) 



All the autonomy the Filipinos might prove themselves 
capable of maintaining was promised; but their com- 
missioners would listen to no compromises. 

On February 4, a skirmish began between the Filipi- 
nos east of Manila and the American guards which soon 
extended along the entire line of occupation from Tondo 
to Malate. The Filipinos retreated from their trenches, 
leaving the suburbs of Manila and the waterworks at 
Santolan in possession of the Americans. 

A few days later, after a severe engagement in 
which the naval and land forces were engaged, 
Caloocan was occupied. General Mac Arthur 
then advanced toward Malolos, where Agui- 
naldo had estabUshed his headquarters. 

Meantime an order had been ^issued from 
Malolos that all foreigners in Manila should be 
assassinated. An attempt to burn Manila 
caused General Otis to place the city under 
martial law, so that no one might be al- 
lowed on the streets after sunset without a 
pass. 
The legal term of the Fifty-fifth Congress closed 
on March 4. The treaty with Spain, ceding Porto 
Rico, Guam, and the PhiHppines, was ratified before ad- 
journment; but the disposition of the new territory was 
left to the Fifty-sixth Congress, to meet in December. 
President Mc Kinley resolved, meantime, to prosecute 
vigorously the war with the Filipinos. Malolos, after 
severe fighting, was occupied by General Mac Arthur, 
and Aguinaldo established his headquarters at San Fer- 
nando. Mac Arthur advanced upon San Fernando and 
Angeles, and captured both towns. Aguinaldo retired 
to San Isidro. 

General Lawton, who had seized Santa Cruz, about 



MC KINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



381 



fMay 17) 



Paranaque 

(June 10) 

Zapota and Bacoor 
(June 13) 

Imus (June 16) 



fifty miles southeast of Manila, and many smaller towns, SantaCmz 
marched against San Isidro. Aguinaldo retreated to San lidro " 
Tarlac. 

General Lawton then proceeded to Malolos, having 
marched one hundred and twenty miles in twenty days, 
fought twenty-two battles, and captured twenty-eight 
towns. 

Meantime the Filipinos had been strengthening them- 
selves at Paranaque, Zapota, 
Bacoor, and Imus, the capital 
of Cavite Province. Generals 
Lawton and Wheaton began a 
campaign against these places, 
and captured them all, driving 
the insurgents to the hills be- 
yond. 

At the beginning of Septem- 
ber Aguinaldo occupied Tarlac 
as his capital. The army of 
40,000 which he had collected 
on the island of Luzon was re- 
duced, by losses in war or de- 
sertion, to about 10,000. The 
Americans were in possession 
of Manila and the surrounding 
country as far north as San Isidro and Angeles, east, 
Santa Cruz, and south, Imus. 

Some of the islands south of Luzon, where Aguinaldo Panay, cebu. 
had little influence, had accepted an American protec- 
torate. Garrisons occupied Iloilo in Panay, the port 
next in importance after Manila; and the chief towns of 
Cebu, Negros, Mindanao, and the Sulus. 

It was thought that Samar, Leyte, Masbate, and 
Bohol, all rich and prosperous islands, would accept an 




Negros, Mindanao 
and the Sulus 
garrisoned with 
American troops 



382 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



Opposition to the 
acquisition of the 
Philippines 



1803 
The purchase of 
Louisiana for 
$15,000,000 



1819 

Florida, $5,000,000 

1845 
Annexation of Texas 



The purchase of 
Mexican lands for 
$15,000,000 and 
$3,500,000 indem- 
nities 



1853 
The Gadsden 
purchase, 
810,000,000 



American protectorate when Aguinaldo was conquered. 
What should be done with the Philippine Islands, which 
the government had acquired so unexpectedly ? 

Not a few members of the Fifty-fifth Congress opposed 
annexing the Philippines to the United States. There 
has always been a conservative element in our govern- 
ment which objects to enlarging its boundaries. 

In 1803, during the Congressional debate over the 
treaty with France for the purchase of Louisiana/ Rep- 
resentative Griswold, of Connecticut, said: "It is not 
consistent with a republican government that its territory 
should be exceedingly large; for, as you extend your lim- 
its, you increase the difficulties arising from a want of 
that similarity of customs, habits, and manners so essen- 
tial for its support. . . . The vast and unmanageable 
extent which the accession of Louisiana will give the 
United States threatens, at no distant day, the subver- 
sion of our Union." Senator White, of Delaware, said: 
" Fifteen million dollars is a most enormous sum to give 
for Louisiana ! " 

The acquisition of Florida ^ was opposed for much the 
same reasons as that of Louisiana. 

The annexation of Texas ^ aroused controversy, not 
only by reason of its adding slave territory, but its law- 
less foreign population. 

The Mexican lands,' including the present California, 
New Mexico, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of Colo- 
rado and Wyoming, seemed so distant and undesirable 
that the price paid was called a criminal waste of public 
money. 

The Gadsden purchase* was thought too expensive. 

The purchase of Alaska' was a bone of contention 



I See map of territorial growth. 



Mc kinley's administration 383 

1867 
at the time of its ratification. General B. F. Butler Alaska, #7.200,000 

said: "If we are to pay for her (Russia's) friendship 

this amount, I desire to give her $7,200,000, and let her 

keep Alaska." 

Representative Williams, of Pennsylvania, said : " The 
whole country exclaimed at once, when it was made 
known, against the ineffable folly, if not the wanton prof- 
ligacy, of the whole transaction. I doubt whether there 
are twenty in the House who would be willing to vote 
for it now, but for the single reason that the contract 
has been made. " Representative Ferris, of New York, 
moved to insert the following clause in the bill : " That 
the president be authorized to bind the United States by 
treaty to pay the sum of $7,200,000 to any respectable 
European, Asiatic, or African power which will accept a 
cession of the Territory of Alaska." 

This made strange reading at a time when the joint 
high commission, appointed by Great Britain and the 
United States, were wrangling about a narrow strip 
along the sea coast of Alaska. Indeed, the years had 
so established the inestimable value of each former 
accession of territory that many legislators were ready 
to annex the Philippines without delay; others, who opposition to the 
opposed bitterly the proposed annexation, argued that Philippine"" 
the islands, being in Asiatic waters, would bring entan- 
glements with the powers of Europe, and thus negative 
the operations of the Monroe doctrine.^ 

Near the close of the year 1 899, the situation was as status of the 
follows: Of the new territory, under the military occu- Spanish cessions 
pation of the United States, — Cuba, the Philippine 
Archipelago, Guam, Porto Rico, and Hawaii, — Porto 
Rico and Hawaii had accepted the sovereignty of the 

^ See page 216 



384 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



The Philippine 
Archipelago 



Hawaii 
Porto Rico 



1510 
Sanjuan founded 
by Ponce de Leon 



Ponce 
Mayaguez 



The supposed 
remains of 
Christopher 
Columbus removed 
from Havana to 
Spain * 

(September 27) 



United States, and awaited the assembling of the Fifty- 
sixth Congress for the estabHshment of territorial gov- 
ernments; Cuba expected the United States to withdraw 
their protectorate when peace and order should have 
been established within her borders; the Philippine 
Islands, still rebellious, were a doubtful factor in the 
territorial readjustment. 

The Philippicie Archipelago, comprising about 1,400 
islands, has a population of nearly 8,000,000. The 
Malay-Polynesians, the predominant race, are divided 
into two branches: the Tagals of central and northern 
Luzon, and the Viscayans of Cebu, Behol, North Min- 
danao, and other islands. The Mestizos, of mixed 
Spanish, or Chinese and Filipino, origin, are scattered 
throughout the archipelago. 

The people of Hawaii are also chiefly Malays.' 

Those of Porto Rico, numbering about 800,000, are 
largely a mixture of Spanish, Indian, and Negro races; 
more than half of the population are considered white. 

The principal towns of Porto Rico are San Juan, the 
capital — founded by Juan Ponce de Leon two years 
before he discovered Florida, while searching for the 
fabled Fountain of Youth; Ponce, which has a fine 
harbor; and Mayaguez, the only town on the island 
boasting a street railway. In the central plaza of 
Mayaguez is a handsome monument in memory of 
Columbus, who landed near its site. 

With the removal of the supposed remains of Christo- 
pher Columbus from their resting place in Havana closed 
the Spanish-American drama, which, begun so gloriously 
in the morning of discovery, has been enacted in shame 
and humiliation before the eyes of the whole world. 



* See page 340. 



If- 



MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 385 

The United States, rebellious under abuses and usur- 
tions, established, through difficulties and hardships, a 
vernment whose cornerstone was personal liberty and 
e4uality before the law. They were thus able, without 
fear of reproach, to stretch out a helping hand to those 
in oppression. Whether the new territory, acquired by 
the foi unes of a war waged in the name of humanity, 
becomes a part of the United States, or is independent 
of them, it accords with our past history to welcome, 
when practicable, a government as free and progressive 
as our own for each and every island. g g 

At the very time that commissioners were negotiating Contributions foi 
a treaty with Spain for the liberation of the Cubans, the M°rq^sdV° * 
school children of our nation were contributing funds to Lafayette 

x-« • • r- 1 f 1 (October tq) 

erect at Pans a magnificent statue to the memory of the 
Marquis de Lafayette, who offered his life and fortune 
for the liberation of our ancestors. 

As for our soldiers who fell on foreign soil during the 
late war, let us, in the words of Abraham Lincoln, 
' ' take from these honored dead increased devotion 
to that cause for which they gave the last full measure 
of devotion; let us highly resolve that these dead shall 
not have died in vain;" that these nations of strange 
tongues, " under God, shall have a new birth of freedom, 
and that government of the people, by the people, for 
the people, shall not perish from the earth." 

In 1900 something happened in China which caused 
the United States for the first time in history to unite its 
armies with the armies of Europe. This movement was ^9°° 
necessary in order to protect the life and property of china^'^^' 
citizens living in that foreign land. A Chinese society 
called Boxers, which opposed everything modern, decided 
to destroy the railroads that had been built by foreigners 
in China, to cut down the telegraph poles, and to put all 



386 MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 

foreign residents to deatii. They first massacred some 
natives who had professed Christianity; then they killed 
some white missionaries, and began burning the mission 
churches. At Pekin the foreigners fled to the ministers 
who represented the nations of Europe and America at 
the Chinese court; but even the embassies could not long 
protect them. Troops from the Chinese imperial army 
joined the Boxers. This made the Chinese government 
more directly responsible for the outbreak, and England, 
Germany, France, Russia, Japan, Italy,. and the United 
States sent troops to China. The allied armies captured 
Pekin and Tientsin in time to save most of the foreign- 
ers. When the government of China sued for peace and 
pledged to protect foreign residents, the allied armies 
withdrew. 



CHAPTER LV 

WILLIAM McKINLEY (Continued) AND THEODORE 

ROOSEVELT, TWENTY-SIXTH PRESIDENT 

(1901 ) REPUBLICAN 

In 1900 President McKinley was re-elected; Wm. J. ^900 

T-i 1 • • ,, • • I • !• 1 , President McKin- 

Bryan being again the principal opposing candidate, ley re-elected 
Theodore Roosevelt was elected vice-president. 

Meantime Porto Rico was nearing the fulfillment of „ 

=■ Porto Rico 

those promises of self-government so often made by 
Spain. The labors of a committee appointed by the 
president resulted in the passage by Congress of a special 
act approved April 20, 1900, that provided for the elec- 
tion by the people of one branch of the legislature, and 
an "Executive Council," or upper branch, composed of 
ofificers appointed by the president. 

The Philippine Islands remained under military gov- -phe Philippines 
ernment until near the close of the year 1900. A com- 
mission, appointed by the president and acting under his 
instruction, formed a legislature with the commanding 
officer of the army as the governor-general. Then a 
civil governor was appointed, and the authority of the y^' v 
army was limited to its own department. Three native^ 
Filipinos were finally added to the Philippine commis-^ 
sion, and Filipinos were appointed to public positions^ 
wherever it seemed practicable. 

The first acts of the commission were directly ordered '^ 
by the president. After Congress had passed specific 
laws relating to the islands, the president still remained 
the head of the new government, but his appointments to 
office required the confirmation of the United States Sen- 
ate; and the commission, or legislature, could not make 
laws contrary to the general laws laid down by Congress. 

[387] 




388 NATIONAL PROGRESS 

Thus the United States is the real ruler of the Philip- 
pine Islands, but by an act of Congress, after a census of 
the islands has been taken, an election for a native legis- 
lature may be held. This legislature, acting with a com- 
mission appointed by the president, will make laws in 

accordance with the Philippine Act of Congress. 
1900 , . 

The census, The census of 1900 showed a population of over 

seventy-six millions in the United States, an increase o£ 
more than thirteen millions in ten years, or since 1890. 
The center of The Center of population was found to be six miles 

population southeast of Columbus, Indiana. The center of area, 

excluding Alaska, Hawaii, and other recent accessions, 
was in northern Kansas. Almost all of the large cities 
had grown enormously. New York City, after the con- 
solidation of near lying territory, became known as 
Greater New York, and took rank as one of the largest 
cities in the world, with a population of nearly three and 
a half millions. Chicago still ranked second among the 
cities of the United States, and Philadelphia third. The 
census indicated a vast increase in manufactures. The 
value of manufactured articles in the year 1900 nearly 
doubled that of agricultural products, yet the importance 
of the boundless farm lands had increased over all former 
years. Many farming communities now have the advan- 
tages of cities in telephones and traveling libraries and a 
free rural mail delivery system which brings to their 
doors the daily papers, the latest magazines, and mer- 
chandise ordered by mail. 
The Pan-American I" 1901, the Pau-Amcrican Exposition, which was 
Exposition, intended to show the products of the two American con- 

tinents, was held at Buffalo, New York. 
. . President McKinley was present at the exposition. In 

The assassination "^ ' . * . 

of the president a spccch made there he alluded to the rapid commercial 

(Sept. 6th.) development of the western hemisphere and expressed 

the good will of our government toward the governments 

of the whole world. On the 6th day of September, the 



ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 



589 



1901 
Death of President 
McKinley 

(Sept. 14) 



president was shot in Buffalo by an anarchist. Days of 
intense anxiety followed, and on the 14th day of Sep- 
tember he died and all parties, without regard to politics, 
mourned the loss of the nation's chief. The honored 
remains were carried with solemn ceremony to Canton, 
Ohio, his old home, for burial. 

Theodore Roosev^elt, the vice-president, became at once President Theo. 

., ,, ,, iri r • r ^°^^ Roosevelt 

president, and through the wonderrui perfection ot 
our constitution, the machinery of the govern- 
ment continued to move on as before. 

In Cuba our government fulfilled its prom- 
ise to assist the island to become an inde- 
pendent nation. 

Great work had been done to enable Cuba 
to become self-governing; millions of rations 
had been distributed to the reconcentrados; 
three million dollars had been divided 
among the disbanded Cuban insurgents, ''^^ 
that the occupations of peace might begin 
asrain; elections for a constitutional conven 
tion had taken place quietly; the sanitary 
conditions of the island had been so improved that The Republic 

• 1 \ J Cuba 

from one of the most unhealthy countries in the world 
it had become one of the healthiest; 
hospitals, asylums, and schools had 
been founded; roads had been built, 
ports improved, and lighthouses set 
up. All this had been accomplished 
with the Cuban tariff much lower 
than that which Spain had imposed. 
The island seemed to be ready to 1902 

., • , r ir _ „ President Tomas 

try the experiment of self-govern- Estrada Paima 
ment. And so, on the 20th day inaugurated 
of May, 1902, Tomas Estrada ^^^^ '"^ 
Palma, who had been elected by 
TOMAS ESTRADA PALMA a popular votc of thc Cubans, was 

1837(?)-1908 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT 




390 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1903 
An industrial war 




GEO. B. CORTELYOU 



Tiie Department 
of Commerce and 
Labor 



1903 
Negotiations 
for the purchase 
of West Indian 
Islands 



inaugurated the first president of the Republic of Cuba. 
The flag of the United States, which had protected the 
island since the withdrawal of Spain, was replaced by the 
flag of Cuba (a flag with blue and white bars, with a red 
union on, which is a single white star), and with expres- 
sions of gratitude for the help and guard of our gov^ern- 
ment, the new government began. 

About this time an industrial war between capital and 
labor began in our country. The United Mine Workers 
of America organized themselves to oppose what was 
known as the Coal Trust, a company which controlled 
seventy-five per cent, of the output of coal. Thousands 
of miners declared themselves unwilling to work the 
mines without certain concessions. The center of the 
strike was in the coal fields of Pennsylvania. 
Fearing public disorder the governor of Pennsyl- 
vania called out the State militia. The mines 
continued idle, however. The price of coal 
advanced beyond the reach of the poorer 
.;i;\ classes of people, and with the approach of 
winter such a scarcity of fuel was threatened 
as to endanger many human lives. This 
most famous strike in the history of our 
country was brought to an end through the 
good oflices of a Commission of Inquiry 
appointed by President Roosevelt. A new 
basis of wages and hours was arranged, and 
various grievances which had caused the disturbance were 
modified. Congress soon after created the Department 
of Commerce and Labor, adding a member to the Cabinet. 
President Roosevelt appointed George B. Cortelyou its 
first secretary. 

In 1902 the Senate ratified a treaty by which Denmark 
ceded to the United States some islands in the West 
Indies. These were the islands just east of Porto Rico: 
St. Thomas, St. John, and St. Croix. The price to be 



ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 



391 



paid for the islands was $5,000,000. The treaty was 
finally rejected by the Danish people. 

The following year, in a special session, the Senate rati- The people of the 
fied a treaty with the United States of Colombia in Soutli United states of 

■^ _ Colombia reject a 

America for building and controlling the Panama Canal canal treaty 
which had been begun by a French company. The Colom- 
bian people refused to accept the treaty. Panama, one of 
the departments of Colombia, within which lay the canal 
route, favored the treaty. 




PACIFIC OCEAN 



When Panama declared its independence. President President Roose- 
Roosevelt ordered ships to the scene to protect American vsit recognizes 

^ ^ the Republic oi 

interests in case of war. A little later the President Panama 

formally received the Panama minister at the White House, (November 13) 

which was considered an official recognition of the new 

republic. The principal powers of Europe followed th& 

example of the United States, and the Republic of Panama 

took its place among the nations of the earth. ^ 

By the Ha3''-Pauncefote Treaty the United States Hay-Pauncefote 
acquired the right to construct a canal and to control it, ^^^^^' 
except that all nations should have equal rights in its 
use. A strip of territory ten miles wide and extending 
three miles into the sea on either side was secured from 
the Republic of Panama for $10,000,000. Panama City 



392 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1876 
Centennial at 
Philadelphia 

1893 
World's Fair at 
Chicago 

1904 
Louisiana Pur- 
chase Exposition 
St. Louis 

Area included in 
the Louisiana 
Purchase 



Increase of trade 
with China and 
Japan 



Congress provides 
for Philippine 
Island exhibit 



and Colon, within this strip, remain a part of Panama; 
but the United States government was given charge of 
their sanitary regulations and authority to enforce order 
in case of need. The property of the French company was 
purchased by the United States at a cost of $40,000,000. 
The work of constructing the canal is in charge of a Com- 
mission of seven men appointed by the President. Work 
is progressing rapidly with the prospect of a finished canal 
by January i, 191 5, at a total estimated cost of $375,- 
000,000. 

"Expositions," said President McKinley, "are the time- 
keepers of progress," and truly great expositions, such as 
the one held in Philadelphia to celebrate the centennial of 
the signing of the Declaration of Independence ; the World's 
Fair held in Chicago to commemorate the discovery of 
America, and the Louisiana Purchase Centennial at St. 
Louis have each begun a period of wonderful progress, and 
have drawn lessons from the events which they celebrated. 

The Louisiana purchase included more than half of our 
country west of the Mississippi. Some single states within 
that territory now contain more inhabitants than there 
were in the United States in Washington's time. 

At the Louisiana Purchase Exposition China and Japan 
were among the most interesting foreign exhibitors. Our 
trade with these countries has enormously increased as we 
have learned of their products and they of ours. 

As the Philippine Islands had but lately become a part 
of our country their exhibit was of special interest. To 
have the Islands properly represented our Congress appro- 
priated $1,000,000 William H. Taft, their Governor, fur- 
nished a published report of what had been done since the 
Islands had been transferred from Spain to the United 
States. It was shown that under the influence of American 
teachers more Filipinos had learned English in three years 
than had learned Spanish during the preceding four hun- 
dred years. 



ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 



393 



More than a thousand representatives of the PhiHppine Philippine tribes 
tribes were brought to St. Louis. Their villages, their represented 
boats, their cooking, building and methods of warfare were 
shown. In a schoolhouse of bamboo and palm sat their 
boys and girls to prove to American children how fast 
they too could learn to be good citizens. 



CHAPTER LVI 



1904 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT (TWENTY-SIXTH PRESIDENT, 
190S-1909), REPUBLICAN- 

In 1904 Theodore Roosevelt was elected to continue in Eiection'of 
office, with Charles W. Fairbanks of Indiana, as Vice- Roosevelt 
President. 



Opf. ■"/ \ 3 . ^ "'^« 

4 / ioaho"; " S OAK . " 

■■■■; ./ 3 ; WYO 4 

'T -;' 3 ' ^ low 

> \ O /"'-^H; COLO ' ' 27 '5 . t '^^^^ 

5 ; -. KAN , MO ., /'<^VW« 



10 



-.«.»•-*'■? 



T*^ ; NO VOTE 






v.. • 



T~ 



REPUPLICAN(R005EyELT) 




•\» ^' I, LA \<^f- 

~ \ 

OEMOCRATIC(PAmER) 




ELECTION OF 1904 



1905 



By strong personal influence President Roosevelt per- Treaty of 
suaded Russia and Japan to end their destructive war by Portsmouth 
the Treaty of Portsmouth, for which he afterwards received 
the Nobel Peace Prize. 



394 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



1 90S 
United States 
battleships cir- 
cumnavigate the 
globe 



Laws suggested to 
regulate railroad 
rates, etc. 



Public career 
of Roosevelt 



An interesting event was the voyage around the world 
of the United States fleet of sixteen battle ships, cultivat- 
ing friendly relations with all nations and impressing them 
with our strength. 

In his message to Congress President Roosevelt suggested 
an unusual number of laws which look to the future wel- 
fare of our people, — laws to regulate more thoroughly rates 
on railroads and the business methods of insurance com- 
panies, laws for meat inspection and laws against adultera- 
tion of foods, also laws limiting more carefully the class 
of immigrants allowed to enter our country. Inspired by 
his earnestness, great movements have begun, such as the 
conservation of our resources, including water-power, min- 
erals and forests. Laws in many of the states in favor of 
local option or prohibition indicate an awakening in favor 
of temperance. 

Perhaps the greatest lesson of this period is to be drawn 
from the life and character of Roosevelt himself. Like 
Washington, Lincoln and McKinley he seems to have been 
providentially prepared for the great office of president. 
With moderate wealth he inherited good health, keen 
intelligence and wonderful energy. He graduated from 
Harvard in 1880, cultivated the physical side of his nature 
by a period of ranch life in the West, and then entered 
upon a public career which including his term as president 
covered a space of twenty-five years. He was successively 
a member of the United States Civil Service Commission, 
Police Commissioner in New York, Assistant Secretary of 
the Navy, Colonel of Rough Riders in Cuba, Governor of 
New York, Vice-President and President. During this 
long period of active life Mr. Roosevelt published almost 
a book a year on a variety of subjects, including history 
and scientific research. The title of one, "The Strenuous 
Life," characterizes the man. Truly our young men have 
noble examples to follow if they know the history of our 
countrv. 



ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 



395 



When several European nations threatened war against European differ- 
Vcnezuela to collect certain debts, President Roosevelt's ^""f^ ""'/^ ^f"*"' 

zuela reterred to 

"big stick" proposition to Congress influenced those The Hague 
governmerits to refer their disputes to The Hague for 
arbitration. ^ 

Beginning in 1898 a rapid change in the organization of Sherman Anti- 
business corporations came about. Trusts were formed to *'''"^' ^^"^ 
buy up or force out of business all smaller companies, until 
prices and outputs could be controlled to the unfair profit 
of the trusts. Our government through the Attorney- 
General brought suit under the Sherman Anti-trust Law 
against the Northern Securities Company and prevented 
the uniting of several great western railroads by which 
competition in rates would have been destroyed. The 
success of this suit showed the power of the government 
to protect the people against the illegal rule of wealth. 



CHAPTER LVII 

WILLIAM H. TAFT (TWENTY-SEVENTH PRESIDENT, 
1909 ), REPUBLICAN 



iqoS 
Election of Taft 



By the election of 1908, William H. Taft and Tames S. P"biic career 

of Taft 

Sherman became President and Vice-President to con- 
tinue the policy of Roosevelt. ^^°^ 



The new President graduated from Yale in 
1878. He became a lawyer and entered public 
life as Judge of the Sixth United States Circuit 
Court. President McKinley appointed him Pres- 
ident of the United States Philippine Commission, 
and as we have learned, he afterward became 
Governor of the Philippines. President 
Roosevelt chose him Secretary of War. 

According to election promises the Payne 
Tariff Bill was passed, reducing the tariff on 
some necessities of life and giving the Pres- 
ident power to vary the rates on goods 



Payne Tarifl Bill 




WILLIAM TAFT 



396 



NATIONAL PROGRESS 



imported from certain countries when necessary in order 
to secure favorable treatment in return. 



Progress in 
inventions 



Improvement in 
methods of 
telegraphing 



1901 
Wireless messages 
sent 




f~~l REPUBLICAN (WT) 



ELECTION OF 1908 
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

The first decade of the twentieth century is a period of 
unusual progress in inventions and in movements toward 
a higher and more refined civilization. 

Methods in telegraphing were only slightly improved 
over the Morse system until instruments were introduced 
for transmitting prepared messages with great speed (one 
thousand words a minute), enabling business houses to 
carry on their correspondence by night messages at a 
cost but little above postage. (Fifty words may be sent 
at night for the same rate charged for a day message of 
ten words). 

Wireless messages were first sent across the Atlantic in 
1 90 1 and a few years after a commercial line was estab- 
lished between Ireland and Nova Scotia with rates lower 



TAFT S ADMINISTRATION 397 

than those by cable. When the White Star steamer 
" Repubhc," sank, wireless messages brought aid by which 
one thousand passengers were rescued. 

Since the introduction of the telephone constant improve- Efficiency of 
ment has been made until it is used successfully up to a ^^^ telephone 

increased 

distance of fifteen hundred miles. The automatic switch- 
board is slowly coming into use. The seeing telephone 
has been proven a possibility. 1^07 

In 1907, Dr. Lee de Forest succeeded in sending wire- wireless teie- 

1,11 , 1 -1 J 1 J • phone messages 

less telephone messages twelve miles, and later experi- ^^^^ 
ments over distances of more than one hundred miles indi- 
cate a possibility that we may in time carry with us a 
means of communication as we now carry a watch. 

Various practical forms of flying machinoe have been Aerodromes 
studied for many years. Prof. S. P. Langley of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, beginning in 1885, made a scientific 
study of aeroplanes and built the first aerodrome that ever 
flew freely. During the last few years several successful 
forms of aerodromes have been used in flights of a few 
miles. The Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, have been 
the most successful builders of aerodromes in the United 
States. The possibility of navigating the air seems now. 
much nearer solution than steam navigation was one hun- 
dred years ago. 

Peace congresses have been held and The Hague has Peace Capitoi 
become the Peace Capitol of the world. The first case 
tried before this International Tribunal was a dispute be- 
tween the United States and Mexico in 1902, called the 
Pius Fund Claims. Mr. Carnegie has arranged to build 
at The Hague a Palace of Peace at a cost of one and a 
half million dollars. 

The American Red Cross is a society to receive con- American Red 
tributions and supplies and to render aid in time of war 
or other national calamity. It rendered great service to 
the San Francisco earthquake sufferers, to the sufferers 
after the Armenian massacres of 1906, in Cuba during the 



398 THE TWENTIETH CENTURY 

Spanish war and after the earthquakes in Sicily in 1909. 
The society cooperates with similar societies in other 
countries, 

Mr. Carnegie has set aside a Hero Fund of $5,000,000 Benefactions of 
of which the income is to be used in honoring and reward- ■^^'^''^'^ Camegie 
ing heroic effort to save life. He has presented library 
buildings to over thirteen hundred villages and cities, 
expending over $40,000,000 He usually offers about 
$2,000 to each one thousand of population, requiring only 
that the people shall support the library with an annual 
appropriation amounting to one-tenth the cost of the 
building. He has set apart a $15,000,000 pension fund, 
the income to be used in granting pensions to aged teachers 
of American colleges and universities. The Carnegie Insti- 
tution, Washington, D. C, founded to encourage research 
and discovery for the improvement of mankind, is endowed 
with $12,000,000. 

The Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research was John d. Rocke- 
founded by a gift of $3,000,000. Mr. Rockefeller also gave ^^"^' ^'f^ ^^^ 

■/ <=> -J ° cause of education 

$32,000,000 to the General Education Board, an associa- 
tion united with Peabody and Slater Boards to promote 
education especially in the South. 

Mrs. Sage gave a fund of $10,000,000 "to improve social Mrs. Russell Sage 
and living conditions in the United States." From this p^vides a fund 

.to improve social 

fund help has been given for the prevention of tuber- and livir.g conii- 
culosis, tor the better housing of working people, for **°"^- 
special research, and to the playground movement. 



The Administrations 



Andrew Johnson 
Republican 
1865-1869 



Domestic 



Foreign 



Ulysses S. Grant 
Republican 
1869-1877 



f Restoration of States 
I The thirteenth amendment 
Impeachment of the president 
The fourteenth amendment 
Seceded States admitted 
The national debt 

The French in Mexico 
Purchase of Alaska 
Chinese treaty 

Census of 1870 
Pacific railroad completed 
Fires 

Signal Service Bureau 
Fifteenth amendment 
Domestic i Panic of '73 

Resumption of specie payment 
Centennials 
Modocs 
Sioux 
^ The electoral commission 



Foreign 



Domestic 



Rutherford B. Hayes 
Republican 
1877-1881 



Proposed annexation of Santo Dommgo 

The Geneva award 

The Virginiiis in Cuban waters 

U. S. troops at the South withdrawn 

Railroad strikes 

Riots in California 

Bland Silver bill 

Resumption of specie payments 

Census of 1880 



Garfield and Arthur 
Republican 
1881-188S 



Foreign j 

f Assassination of President Garfield 

Vice-President Arthur becomes president 
I Centennial of the battle of Yorktown 
Domestic \ Expositions in the South 

Restriction of Chinese immigration 

Railroad time tables 

Lieutenant Greely's polar expedition 



Foreign 



Grover Cleveland 

Democratic 

1 881;- 1 880 



Death of General Grant 
Bartholdi's statue of liberty 
Labor strikes 
Contract Labor bill 
Death of Vice-President Hendricks 
Domestic \ Blizzards and earthquakes 

Centennial of the signing of the Consti- 
tution 
Interstate Commerce Act 
Increase of navy 
Department of Labor established 

■p . ( Canadian fisheries 

oreign -^ Panama Canal and the Monroe doctrine 



[399] 



w 



I Benjamin Harrison 
Republican 
1S89-1893 



. Foreign 



G rover Cleveland 
Democratic 

1893-1897 



William McKinley 

Republican 

1 897-1901 



f Oklahoma 

The Sioux reservation 
I Census of 1890 
Domestic^ Sherman Silver Purchase Act 
McKinley Tariff bill 
Pan-American Congress 
Columbian centennial 

{Panama Canal and the Monroe doctrine 
Samoan dispute 
Bering Sea arbitration 
Proposed annexation of Hawaii 

'Columbian centennial 
Panic of '93 

Special session of Congress 
' Domestic ■{ Repeal of Sherman Silver Purchase Act 
Strikes 

Wilson Tariff Bill 
^ Increase of Navy 

{Hawaii asks to be annexed to U. S. 
Cuba asks recognition of belligerency 
Venezuela boundary dispute 

Special session of Fifty-fifth Congress 

Dingley Tariff Bill 

Appropriation for American citizens in 
Cuba 

Omaha Trans-Mississippi Exposition 
"Domestical Re-election of President McKinley 

Census of 1900 

Assassination of President McKinley 

Vice-President Roosevelt becomes Pres- 
ident 

The Department of Commerce and Labor 

'Anglo-American joint high commission 

Samoan republic proposed 

Destruction of the Maine 

Congress resolves to interfere in Cuban 
affairs 

Declaration of war against Spain 

Blockade of Cuban ports 

Destruction of Spanish fleet in Manila Bay 

Guam occupied 

Destruction of Spanish fleet at Santiago 

Santiago occupied 

Peace protocol 

Porto Rico occupied 

Annexation of Hawaii 

Manila surrenders 

Treaty of peace with Spain 

Aguinaldo declares war against U. S. 

War with China 

Tomas Estrada Palma elected President 
of the Rej)ublic of Cuba. 

Pius Fund Claims settled. 

Panama Canal Zone acquired. 

Louisiana Purchase Exposition. 

United States battleships circumnavi- 
gate the globe. 

(400) 



Foreign 



Theodore Roosevelt, 

Rci^ublican, 

1901-1909 



William H. Taft. f Payne Tariff Bill. 

Republican, •; Wireless Telei^rajJii and Telephone. 
1900. I Acrudrumes used. 



APPENDIX. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. 

In Congress, July 4. 1776. 

A DECLARATION BY THE REPRESENTATIVES OF THE 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, IN CONGRESSi 
ASSEMBLED. 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for 
one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them 
with another, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the 
separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's 
God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind 

1 The first Continental or General Congress met in Carpenters' Hall, Phila- 
delphia, September 5, 1774. It consisted of forty-four delegates, representing 
eleven of the thirteen colonies. Later, eleven more delegates took their seats, 
and all of the colonies were represented except Georgia, which promised to 
concur with " her sister colonies" in their effort to maintain their rights as Eng- 
lish subjects. Peyton Randolph of Virginia was elected President of the Congress. 
Among the distinguished men who had assembled there, were Washington, 
Patrick Henry, Richard Henry Lee, John Dickinson, William Livingston, John 
Jay, John Adams, Samuel Adams, Roger Sherman, and the Rutledges of South 
Carolina. 

On the 14th of October, the Congress adopted a Declaration of Colonial Rights. 
On the 26th, ^ Petition to the King , asking the redressof their wrongs, was drawn up. 

The Second Continental Congress (at which Georgia was represented), met in 
Philadelphia, in the State House (Independence Hall), May lo, 1775. A second 
Petition to the King -was adopted, and Washington was appointed commander-in- 
chief of the Continental army, though Congress still denied any intention of 
separating from Great Britain, and earnestly expressed a desire for the peaceful 
settlement of all difficulties. 

The King's Proclamation, declaring the Colonies in rebellion, and calling for 
volunteers to force them to submit to taxation without representation, and other 
unjust measures, finally convinced the delegates to Congress of the impossibility 
of our continuing our allegiance to the English crown. 

On June 7, 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia moved "That these United 
Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states." John Adams 
of Massachusetts seconded the motion. 

Later, a committee of five— Thomas Jefierson of Virginia, John Adams of Mas- 
sachusetts, Beujamin Franklin of Pennsylvania, Roger Sherman of Connecticut, 
and Robert R. Livingston of New York— was appointed to draft the Declaration of 
Independence. Jefferson drew up the paper, though a few alterations were made 
in it by the committee and by Congress. 

It was adopted on the evening of July 4, 1776, and signed by John Hancock, 
President of Congress, and Charles Thomson, Secretary. On August 2, 1776, it 
was signed by the members, representing all the thirteen states. 

[i] 



{{ APPENDIX 

requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the 
separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: — That all men are created 
equal; that they are ^endowed by their Creator with certain unalien- 
able rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of 
happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted 
among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
erned ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destructive 
of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and 
to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such princi- 
ples, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem 
most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, 
will dictate, that governments long established should not be changed 
for light and transient causes; and accordingly all experience hath 
shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer while evils are 
sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which 
they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpa- 
tions, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to 
reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their 
duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for 
their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of these 
colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to 
alter their former systems of government. The history of the pres- 
ent King of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpa- 
tions, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute 
tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to 
a candid world. 

He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and neces- 
sary for the public good. 

He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and 
pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly 
neglected to attend to them. 

He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of 
representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and 
formidable to tyrants only. 

He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncom- 
fortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for 
the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measure. 

He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly, for opposing, 
with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of 
annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; 
the State remaining, in the meantime, exposed to all the dangers of 
invasions from without, and convulsions within. 

He has endeavored to prevent the population of these States; for 
that purpose obstructing the laws for the naturalization of foreigners; 
refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and 
raising the conditions of new appropriations of lands. 

He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his 
assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of 
their offices, and the amount and payment of their salaries. 



DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE iii 

He has erected a multitude of new ofiBces, and sent hither swarms 
of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

He has kept among us in times of peace, standing armies, withou); 
the consent of our legislatures. 

He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil power. 

He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our constitutions, and unacknowledged .by our laws; giving his 
assent to their acts of pretended legislation : 

For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us; 

For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any 
murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these 
States; 

For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world; 

For imposing taxes on us without our consent; 

For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury; 

For transporting us beyond seas, to be tried for pretended offences; 

For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring 
province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarg- 
ing its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit 
instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies: 

For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, 
and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments; 

For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves 
invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

He has abdicated government here, by declaring us out of his pro- 
tection, and waging war against us. 

He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burned our towns, 
and destroyed the lives of our people. 

He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of death, desolation and tyranny, already 
begun with circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled 
in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a 
civilized nation. 

He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners 
of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

He has excited domestic insurrection among us, and has endeav- 
ored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian 
savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruc- 
tion of all ages, sexes, and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress 
in the most humble terms; our repeated petitions have been answered 
only by repeated injury. A prince whose character is thus marked 
by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a 
free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British breth- 
ren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their 
legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We 
have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and 
magnanimity; and we have conjured them, by the ties of our com- 
mon kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably 
interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been 
deaf to the voice of justice and consanguinity. We must, therefore, 



APPENDIX 



acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold 
them, as we hold the rest of^mankind, enemies in war, in peace friends. 

We, tlierefore, the Representatives of the United States of Amer- 
ica, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge 
of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and 
by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly 
publish and declare. That these united Colonies are, and of right 
ought to be, free and independent states; that they are absolved 
from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political con- 
nection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to 
be, totally dissolved; and that, as free and independent states, they 
have full povvcr to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, 
establish commerce, and do all other acts and things which independ- 
ent states may of right do. And, for the support of this declara- 
tion, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Providence, 
we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our 
sacred honor. 

The foregoing Declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed, 
and signed by the following members: — 

JOHN HANCOCK. 



New Hampshire 
Josiah Bartlett 
William Whipple 
Matthew Thornton 

Massachusetts Bay 
Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 

Rhode Island 
Stephen Hopkins 
William Ellery 

Connecticut 
Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
William Williams 
Oliver Wolcott 

New York 
William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 



New Jersey 
Richard Stockton 
John Witherspoon 
Francis Hopkinson 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

Pennsylvania 
Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Clymer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

Delaware 
Caesar Rodney 
George Read 
Thomas M'Kean 

Maryland 
Samuel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 



Charles Carroll of Car- 
roUton 

Virginia 
George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harrison 
Thomas Nelson, Jr. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 

North Carolina 
William Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

South Carolina 
Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Hayward, Jr 
Thomas Lynch, Jr. 
Arthur Micldleton 

Georgia 
Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES— 1787 

We the people of the United States, in order to form a more 
perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, pro- 
vide for the common defense, promote the general welfare, and 
secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, 
do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States 
of America. 

ARTICLE I 

Section i. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested 
in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate 
and House of Representatives. 

Section 2. i The House of Representatives shall be com- 
posed of members chosen every second year by the people of the 
several States, and the electors in each State shall have the quali- 
fications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the 
State legislature.! 

2 No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years 
a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, 
be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 

3 Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among 
the several States which may be included within this Union, 
according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined 
by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those 
bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not 
taxed, three fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration 
shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the 
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term 
of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The 
number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty 
thousand, but each State shall have at least one representative; 
and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New 
Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, 
New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, 
Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five. South Carolina 
five, and Georgia three. 



1 See 14th amendment 

[v] 



vi APPENDIX 

4 When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, 
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill 
such vacancies. 

5 The House of Representatives shall choose their speaker 
and other officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

Section 3. i The Senate of the United States shall be com- 
posed of two senators from each State, chosen by the legislature 
thereof for six years ; and each senator shall have one vote. 

2 Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence 
of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may 
be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first 
class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the 
second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third 
class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one third may be 
chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resigna- 
tion, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any 
State, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments 
until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such 
vacancies. 

3 No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained 
to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the 
United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant 
of that State for which he shall be chosen. 

4 The vice-president of the United States shall be president 
of the Senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally 
divided. 

5 The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a presi- 
dent pro tenip07'e, in the absence of the vice-president, or when 
he shall exercise the office of the president of the United States. 

6 The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach- 
ments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath 
or affirmation. When the president of the United States is tried, 
the chief justice shall preside ; and no person shall be convicted 
without the concurrence of two thirds of the members present. 

7 Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further 
than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States ; but 
the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject 
to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

Section 4. i The times, places, and manner of holding 
elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed 
in each State by the legislature thereof ; but the Congress may 
at any time by law make or alter such regulations, except as to 
the places of choosing senators. 

2 The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and 
such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless 
they shall by law appoint a different day. 

Section 5. i Each house shall be the judge of the elections, 
returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES vii 

each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller num- 
ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to 
compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner, and 
under such penalties as each house may provide. 

2 Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
punish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the con- 
currence of two thirds, expel a member. 

3 Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may 
in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the 
members of either house on any question shall, at the desire 
of one fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 

4 Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, with- 
out the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, 
nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall 
be sitting. 

Section 6. i The senators and representatives shall receive 
a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and 
paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all 
cases, except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privi- 
leged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their 
respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; 
and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be 
questioned in any other place. 

2 No senator or representative shall, during the time for 
which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the 
authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or 
the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such 
time ; and no person holding any office under the United States 
shall be a member of either house during his continuance in 
office. 

Section 7. i All bills for raising revenue shall originate in 
the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or 
concur with amendments as on other bills. 

2 Every bill which shall have passed the House of Repre- 
sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be 
presented to the president of the United States ; if he approve, he 
shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to 
that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the 
objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. 
If after such reconsideration two thirds of that house shall agree 
to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to 
the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and 
if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. 
But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined 
by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and 
against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house 
respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the president 
within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been pre- 



viii APPENDIX 

Bented to him, the same shall be a law, -in like manner as if he 
had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjournment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

3 Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of 
the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary 
(except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the 
president of the United States ; and before the same shall take 
effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, 
shall be repassed by two thirds of the Senate and House of Rep- 
resentatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in 
the case of a bill. 

Section 8. i The Congress shall have power to lay and col- 
lect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and 
provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United 
States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform 
throughout the United States ; 

2 To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 

3 To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the 
several States, and with the Indian tribes; 

4 To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform 
laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

5 To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 

6 To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the secu- 
rities and current coin of the United States ; 

7 To establish post-ofBces and post-roads ; 

8 To promote the progress of science and useful arts by 
securing for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive 
right to their respective writings and discoveries ; 

9 To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 

ID To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on 
the high seas, and offenses against the law of nations ; 

11 To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and 
make rules concerning captures on land and water ; 

12 To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

13 To provide and maintain a navy; 

14 To make rules for the governinent and regulation of the 
land and naval forces ; 

15 To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws 
of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 

16 To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed 
in the service of the United States, reserving to the States 
respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of 
training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by 
Congress ; 

17 To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, 
over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix 

cession of particular Stetes and the acceptance of Congress, 
become the seat of the government of the United States, and to 
exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent 
of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the 
erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and other need- 
ful buildings ; and — 

1 8 To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for 
carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers 
vested by this Constitution in the government of the United 
States, or in any department or officer thereof. 

Section 9. i The migration or importation of such persons 
as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall 
not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the year one thousand 
eight hundred and eight, but a tax or a duty may be imposed on 
such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 

2 The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be sus- 
pended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public 
safety may require it. 

3 No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4 No capitation, or other direct, tax shall be laid, unless in 
proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to 
be taken. 

5 No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any 
State. 

6 No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce 
or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor 
shall vessels bound to, or from, one State be obliged to enter, 
clear, or pay duties in another. 

7 No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in conse- 
quence of appropriations made by law ; and a regular statement 
and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money 
shall be published from time to time. 

8 No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; 
and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, 
shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, 
emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, 
prince, or foreign state. 

Section 10. 1 i No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, 
or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; 
emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender 
in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, 
or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title 
of nobility. 

2 No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay 
any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be 
absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws ; and the 
net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports 



iSee the loth, 13th, 14th, and 15th amendments. 



X APPENDIX 

or exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United 
States ; and all such laws shall l)e subject to the revision and con- 
trol of the Congress. 

3 No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, 
enter into any agreement or compact with another State, or with 
a foreign power, or engage in war unless actually invaded, 
or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

Section i. i The executive power shall be vested in a presi- 
dent of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
during the term of four years, and, together with the vice-presi- 
dent, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: — 

2 Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole 
number of senators and representatives to which the State may 
be entitled in the Congress ; but no senator or representative, 
or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United 
States, shall be appointed an elector. 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall 
make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number 
of votes for each; which list they shall sign and certify, and trans- 
mit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, 
directed to the president of the Senate. The president of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Repre- 
sentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes 
shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who 
have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then 
the House of Representatives shall immediately choose by ballot 
one of them for president ; and if no person have a majority, 
then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in like 
manner choose the president. But in choosing the president, 
the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each 
State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and 
a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having 
the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be the vice- 
president. But if there should remain two or more who have 
equal votes, the Senate shall choose from them by ballot the vice- 
president. i 



1 See i2th umendment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xi 

3 The Congress may determine the time of choosing the elect- 
ors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day 
shall be the same throughout the United States. 

4 No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the 
United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, 
shall be eligible to the office of president; neither shall any person 
be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the 
United States. 

5 In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president, 
and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, 
death, resignation, or inabihty, both of the president and vice- 
president, declaring what officer shall then act as president, and 
such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, 
or a president shall be elected. 

6 The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services 
a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
during the period for which he shall have been elected, and 
he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from 
the United States, or any of them. 

7 Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take 
the following oath or affirmation: " I do solemnly swear (or 
affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the 
United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, 
protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." 

Section 2. i The president shall be commander-in-chief 
of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia 
of the several States, when called into the actual service of the 
United States; he may require the opinion in writing, of the prin- 
cipal officer in each of the executive departments, upon any 
subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and 
he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses 
against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2 He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent 
of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the sen- 
ators present concur, and he shall nominate, and by and witii 
the advice and consent of the Senate, shall appoint ambassadors, 
other public ministers and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, 
and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are 
not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established 
by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such 
inferior officers, as they think proper, in the president alone, in the 
courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 

3 The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that 
may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting com- 
missions which shall expire at the end of their next session. 

Section 3 He shall from time to time give to the Congress 



xu APPENDIX 

information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their 
consideration such measures as lie shall judge necessary and 
expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both 
houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between 
them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn 
them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive 
ambassadors and other public ministers ; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the offi- 
cers of the United States. 

Section 4. The president, vice-president, and all civil officers 
of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment 
for, and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and 
misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be 
vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the 
Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The 
judges, both of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their 
offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive 
for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished 
during their continuance in office. 

Section 2. i The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in 
law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the 
United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
their authority; to all cases affecting ambassadors, other public 
ministers and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime 
jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall 
be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; 
between a State and citizens of another State ; 1 between citizens 
of different States, between citizens of the same State claiming 
lands under grants of different States, and between a State, or 
the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 

2 In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the 
Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other 
cases before mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate 
jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and 
under such regulations as the Congress shall make. 

3 The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, 
shall be by jury ; and such trial shall be held in the State where 
the said crimes shall have been committed ; but when not com- 
mitted within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places 
as the Congress may by law have directed. 

Section 3. i Treason against the United States shall consist 
only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, 
giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of 



1 See the nth amendmenL 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xiii 

treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same 
overt act, or on confession in open court. 

2 The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
blood, or forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

Section i. Full faith and credit shall be given in each State 
to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other 
State. And the Congress may by genera4 laws prescribe the 
manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be 
proved, and the effect thereof. 

Section 2. i The citizens of each State shall be entitled to 
all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 

2 A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from 
which he fled, be delivered up to be removed to the State having 
jurisdiction of the crime. 

3 No person held to service or labor in one State, under the 
laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any 
law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or 
labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom 
such service or labor may be due.i 

Section 3. i New States may be admitted by the Congress 
into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected 
within the jurisdiction of any other State, nor any State be 
formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, 
without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as 
well as of the Congress. 

2 The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all 
needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this 
Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of 
the United States, or of any particular State. 

Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State 
in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect 
each of them against invasion, and, on application of the legisla- 
ture, or of the executive (when the legislature can not be con- 
vened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem 
it necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, 
on the application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several 
States, shall call a convention for proposing amendments, which, 



1 See the 13th amendment. 



xiv APPENDIX 

in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes, as part 
of this Constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three 
fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three fourths 
thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be 
proposed by the Congress, provided, that no amendment which 
may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and 
eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article ; and that no State, without its 
consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

1 All debts contracted and engagements entered into before 
the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the 
United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 

2 This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which 
shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or 
which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, 
shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every 
State shall be bound thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws 
of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 

3 The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the 
members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and 
judicial officers, both of the United States, and of the several 
States, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this 
Constitution ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a 
qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be suffi- 
cient for the establishment of this Constitution between the States 
so ratifying the same. 

Done in Convention by the unanimous consent of the States pres- 
ent i the seventeenth day of September in the year of our Lord 
one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the 
independence of the United States of America the twelfth. 
In witness whereof we have hereunto subscribed our names, — 
George Washington, 

President, and Deputy from Virginia*. 

Ne7u Hampshire Connecticut 

John Langdon Wm. Samuel Johnson 

Nicholas Oilman Roger Sherman 

Massachusetts , ^.^^ y^^j^ 

Nathaniel Gorham 

Rufus King Alexander Hamilton 



1 Rhode Island was not represented in the Federal Convention. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 



New Jersey 

William Livingston 
David Brearley 
William Paterson 
Jonathan Dayton 

Pennsylvania 

Benjamin Franklin 
Thomas Mifflin 
Robert Morris 
George Clymer 
Thomas Fitzsimons 
Jared Ingersoll 
James Wilson 
Gouverneur Morris 

Delaware 

George Read 
Gunning Bedford, Jr. 
John Dickinson 
Richard Bassett 
Jacob Broom 



Maryland 

James Me Henry 

Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 

Daniel Carroll 

Virginia 

John Blair 

James Madison, Jr. 

North Carolina 

William Blount 
Richard Dobbs Spaight 
Hugh Williamson 

South Carolina 

John Rutledge 

Charles Cotesvvorth Pinckney 

Charles Pinckney 

Pierce Butler 

Georgia 

William Few 
Abraham Baldwin 



Attest: William Jackson, Secretary 



Note. — The body of the Constitution is from the original draft, but the signatures 
have been modernized. 



Articles in addition to, and amendment of, the Constitution of 
the United States of America, proposed by Congress, and rat- 
ified by the legislatures of the several States pursuant to the 
fifth article of the original Constitution. 

ARTICLE I 
Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of 
religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the 
freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people 
peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a 
redress of grievances. 

ARTICLE II 
A well-regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a 
free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall 
not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III 
No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house 
without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a 
manner to be prescribed by law. 



APPENDIX 



ARTICLE IV 



The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, 
papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, 
shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon prob- 
able cause, supported by oath or affirmation, and particularly 
describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to 
be seized, 

ARTICLE V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise 
infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand 
jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; 
nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice 
put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any 
criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of 
life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall 
private property be taken for public use without just compen- 
sation. 

ARTICLE VI 

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right 
to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and 
district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which dis- 
trict shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be 
informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be con- 
fronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory 
process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assist- 
ance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII. 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall 
exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury sh^ll be preserved, 
and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any 
court of the United States, than according to the rules of the 
common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines 
imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 

The enumeration in the Constitution ot certain rights shall 
not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the 
people. 



AMENDMENTS 



ARTICLE X» 



The powers not delegated to the United States by the Consti- 
tution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the 
States respectively, or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI2 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed 
to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted 
against one of the United States by citizens of another State, 
or by citizens or subjects of any foreign State. 

ARTICLE XII 3 

The electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote 
by ballot for president and vice-president, one of whom, at least, 
shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves ; 
they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as president, 
and in distinct ballots the person voted for as vice-president, and 
they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, 
and of all persons voted for as vice-president, and of the number 
of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and 
transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the Senate. The president 
of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Rep- 
resentatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then 
be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes 
for president shall be the president, if such number be a majority 
of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person 
have such majority, then from the persons having the highest 
numbers, not exceeding three, on the list of those voted for 
as president, the House of Representatives shall choose imme- 
diately, by ballot, the president. But in choosing the president, 
the votes shall be taken by States, the representation from each 
State having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist 
of a member or members from two thirds of the States, and 
a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. And 
if the House of Representatives shall not choose a president, 
whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the 
fourth day of March next following, then the vice-president shall 
act as president, as in the case of the death or other constitutional 
disability of the president. The person having the greatest num- 
ber of votes as vice-president shall be the vice-president, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed, 
and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest 
numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the vice-president ; 



1 The first ten amendments were adopted in X791. 

a Adopted in 1798. (Adopted in 1804. 



xviii APPENDIX 

a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of the whole 
number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligi- 
ble to the office of president shall be eligible to that of vice-presi- 
dent of the United States. 

ARTICLE XIII 1 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except 
as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any place sub- 
ject to their jurisdiction. 

Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article 
by appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV2 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United 
States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the 
United States, and of the State wherein they reside. No State 
shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges 
or immunities of citizens of the United States ; nor shall any 
State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due 
process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the 
equal protection of the laws. 

Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the 
several States according to their respective numbers, counting the 
whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not 
taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice 
of electors for president and vice-president of the United States, 
representatives in Congress, the executive and judicial officers of 
a State, or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to 
any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years 
of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, 
except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of 
representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which 
the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number 
of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 

Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in 
Congress, or elector of president and vice-president, or hold any 
office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, 
who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, 
or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State 
legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to 
support the Constitution of the United States, shall have engaged 
in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com- 
fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two 
thirds of each house, remove such disability. 



1 Adopted in 1865. 1 Adopted in 1868. 



AMENDMENTS xix 

Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United 
States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment 
of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection 
or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United 
States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation 
incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave ; 
but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal 
and void. 

Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by 
appropriate legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV 3 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote 
shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any 
State on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this 
article by appropriate legislation. 

EXTRACT FROM " DECLARATION OF RIGHTS," 1774. 

Resolved, 4. That the foundation of English liberty, and of all 
free government, is a right in the people to participate in their legis- 
lative council; and as the English colonists are not represented, and 
from their Jocal and other circumstances, cannot properly be repre- 
sented in the British Parliament, they are entitled to a free and 
exclusive power of legislation in their several provincial legislatures, 
where their right of representation can alone be preserved, in all 
cases of taxation and internal polity, subject only to the negative of 
their sovereign, in such manner as has been heretofore used and 
accustomed. 

Documents Illustrative of American History. 



"Adopted in 1870. 



THE 



'RESIDENT'S CABINET 

CREATED 



Secretary of State 1789 

Secretary of Treasury 1789 

Secretary of War 1 789 

Secretary of Navy lygS 



Attorney-General (Cabinet). . 18 14 
Postmaster-General (Cabinet) 1829 

Secretary of Agriculture 1S89 

Secretary of Commerce 1903 



THE ADMISSION OF STATES AND TERRITORIES INTO THE 
UNION, AND THEIR RATIO OF REPRESENTATION BASED 
ON THE CENSUS OF 1900 



I 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 
10 
II 
12 
13 



14 
15 
16 

17 
18 

19 
20 
21 
22 

23 
24 

25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 

43 
44 
45 

46 



STATES 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania. . . 
New Jersey. . . . 

Georgia 

Connecticut. . . . 
Massachusetts. . 

Maryland 

South Carolina. 
New Hampshire 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina. 
Rhode Island . . 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohio 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine. 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia. . 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota . . 
South Dakota. . 

Montana 

Washington. . . . 

Idaho 

Wyoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma. . . , 



Ratified the 
Constitution 



Dec. 7, 1787 
Dec. 12, 1787 
Dec. 18, 1787 
Jan. 2, 1788 
Jan. 9, 1788 
Feb. 6, 1788 
April 28, 1788 
May 23, 1788 
June 21, 1788 
June 25, 1788 
July 26, 1788 
Nov. 21, 1789 
May 29, 1790 

Admitted to 
the Union 

March 4, 1791 
June I, 1792 
June I, 1796 
Feb. 19, 1803 
April 30, 1812 
Dec. II, 1816 
Dec. 10, 181 7 
Dec. 3, 1818 
Dec. 14, 1819 
March 15, 1820 
Aug. 10, 1 82 1 
June 15, 1836 
Jan. 26, 1837 
March 3, 1845 
Dec. 29, 1845 
Dec. 28, 1846 
May 29, 1848 
Sept. 9, 1850 
May II, 1858 
Feb. 14, 1859 
Jan. 29, 1861 
June 19, 1863 
Oct. 31, 1864 
March i, 1867 
Aug. I, 1876 
Nov. 2, 1889 
Nov 2, 1889 
Nov. 8, 1889 
Nov. II, 1889 
July 3, 1890 
July lo, 1890 
Jan. 4, 1896 
.\ov. 16, 1907 



1900 

Repre- 
sent' ves 



I 

32 
10 
I I 

5 
14 

6 

7 
2 

ID 

37 
10 

2 



10 
21 

7 
13 

8 
25 

9 

4 
16 

7 
12 

3 

16 
II 
II 

8 

9 
2 
8 

5 
I 

6 
3 



1908 

Elec. 
Votes 



3 
34 
12 

>3 

7 

16 

8 

9 

4 

12 

39 

12 

4 



4 
13 
12 

23 

9 
15 
10 
27 
II 

6 
ig 

9 
14 

5 

18 
13 
13 
10 
II 

4 
10 

7 

3 
8 

5 
4 
4 
3 
S 
3 
3 
3 



APPENDIX 



TERRITORIES 



District of Columbia 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Alaska 

Hawaian Islands ... 



Organized 



March 3, 1791 
Sept. 9, 1850 
Feb. 24, 1863 
July 27, 1868 
June 14, 1900 





DEPENDENCIES 


Acquired 




Guam 


1899 
1899 
1899 
1899 
1904 


2 


Philippine Islands 




Porto Rico 


4 


Tutuila 


5 


Panama Canal Zone 





EUROPEAN SOVEREIGNS CONTEMPORANEOUS 
WITH COLONIAL HISTORY 



ENGLAND 

Henry VII 1485 

Henry VIII 1509 

Edward V 1547 

Mary 1553 

Elizabeth 1558 

James I 1603 

Charles 1 1625 

Commonwealth. . . . 1649 

Charles II 1660 

James II 1685 

William III and 

Mary II 1689 

Anne 1702 

George I 17 14 

George II 1727 

George III. . . 1 760-1820 



FRANCE 

Charles VIII 1483 

Louis XII 1498 

Francis 1 1515 

Henry II 1547 

Francis II 1559 

Charles IX. 1560 

Henry III 1574 

Henry IV 1589 

Louis XIII 1610 

Louis XIV 1643 



Louis XV 1715 

Louis XVI 1774 

Republic .... 1793-1804 



SPAIN 

Ferdinand and 

Isabella 1479 

Charles I J 15 16 

Philip II 1556 



Philip III 1598 

Philip IV 1621 

Charles II 1665 



Philip V 1 700 

Ferdinand VI 1744 

Charles III 1759 

Charles IV... 1 788- 1 808 



'Charles V, Emperor of Germany. 



APPENDIX 



RULERS OF PRINCIPAL FOREIGN COUNTRIES IN 19 lo 



Austria- H angary 

Belgium 

Brazil 

Chile 

China . 

Cuba 

Denmark 

France 

Germany 

Great Britain . . . 

Greece 

Italy 

Japan 

Mexico 

Netherlands 

Norway 

Persia 

Peru , 

Roumania 

Russia 

Servia . 

Spain 

Sweden 

Switzerland 

Turkey 



Francis Joseph (Emperor) 

Albert I (King) 

Nito Pecanha (President) 

Pedro Montt (President) 

Hsuantung (Emperor) 

Jose Miguel Gomez (President). 

Frederick VIII (King) 

Armand Fallieres (President) . . 

William II (Emperor) 

George V (King) 

George I (King) 

Victor Emmanuel III (King). . 

Mutsu Hito (Mikado) 

Porfirio Diaz (President) 

Wilhelmina (Queen) 

Haakon VII (King) 

Ahmud Mirza (Shah) 

A. B. Legula (Pre.sident) 

Charles (King) 

Nicholas II (Czar) 

Peter (King) 

Alfonso XIII (King) 

Gustaf V (King) 

Robert Comtesse (President)... 
Mohammed V (Sultan) 



ACCESSION 

1848 

1909 

1909 

1906 

1908 

1909 

1906 

1906 

1888 

1910 

1863 

1900 

1867 

1884 

1899 

1905 

1909 

1908 



1894 

1903 
1886 
1907 
1910 
1909 



DIPLOMATIC AND CONSULAR 
Amb.^ssadors Extraordinary and 
Salary $17,500. 
Austria-Hungary. Great Britain. 



Brazil. 

France. 

Germany. 



Italy. 
Japan. 



SERVICE, 1 9 10 
Plenipotentiary 



Mexico. 
Russia. 
Turkey. 



Envoys Extraordinary and Ministers Plenipotentiary. 
Salary $10,000 to $12,000. 



Argentine Republic. Greece. 

Belgium. Guatemala. 

Bolivia. Hayti. 

Chile. Honduras. 

China. Morocco. 

Colombia. Netherlands. 

Costa Rica. Nicaragua. 

Cuba Norway. 

Denmark. Panama. 

Equador. Paraguay. 



Persia. 

Peru. 

Portugal. 

Roumania. 

Salvador. 

Siam. 

Spain. 

Sweden. 

Switzerland. 

Venezuela. 



A LETTER FROM CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 
TO LUIS DE SANT ANGEL 

The following letter addressed by Christopher Colum- 
bus to Luis de Sant Angel, whose powerful advocacy of 
the proposed voyage finally induced Queen Isabella to 
favor its undertaking, was written, in large part, off the 
Canary Islands during the admiral's first voyage. It is 
thought that Columbus sent the letter from Palos to 
Barcelona, where Sant Angel was in attendance upon 
Ferdinand and Isabella, before retiring to Seville to 
await the royal summons to court. 

Sir: As I know you will be rejoiced at the glorious success 
that our Lord has given me in my voyage, I write this to tell you 
how in thirty-three days I sailed to the Indies with the fleet that 
the illustrious King and Queen, our Sovereigns, gave me, where 
I discovered a great many islands, inhabited by innumerable peo- 
ple ; and of all I have taken possession for their Highnesses 
by proclamation and display of the Royal Standard, without 
opposition. To the first Island I discovered I gave the name 
of San Salvador, in commemoration of His Divine Majesty, who 
has wonderfully granted all this. The Indians call it Guanahani. 
The second I named the Island of Santa Maria de Concepcion ; 
the thiriJ, Fernandina; the fourth, Isabella ; the fifth, Juana; and 
thus to each one I gave a new name. When I came to Juana, 
I followed the coast of that isle toward the west, and found it 
so extensive that I thought it might be mainland, the province 
Cathay ; and as I found no towns nor villages, on the seacoast, 
except a few small settlements, where it was impossible to speak 
to the people, because they fled at once, I continued the said 
route, thinking I could not fail to see some great cities or towns, 
and finding at the end of many leagues that nothing new appeared, 
and that the coast led northward, contrary to my wish, because 
the winter had already set in, I decided to make for the south, and 
as the wind also was against my proceeding, I determined not 
to wait there longer, and turned back to a certain port, from 
whence I sent two men on shore to find out whether there was any 
king or large city. They explored for three days, and found nu- 
merous small communities and innumerable people, but could hear 
of no kind of government, so they returned. I heard from other 
Indians I had already taken that this land was an island, and thus 
followed the eastern coast for 107 leagues, until I came to the end 

[xxiiij 



xxiv LETTER OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 

of it. From that point I saw another isle to the east, at eight 
or ten leagues' distance, to which I at once gave the name of 
Spanola. I went thither and followed its northern coast to the 
east, as I had done in J nana, 178 leagues in a straight line 
eastward, as in J nana. This island, like all the others, is most 
extensive, and richly wooded. It has many ports along the 
seacoast — incomparably more than others I know of in Chris- 
tendom — and marvelously fine, large, flowing rivers. The land 
there is elevated, with many mountains and peaks incomparably 
higher than in the center isle. They are most beautiful, of 
a thousand varied forms, accessible, and full of trees of endless 
varieties, so high that they seem to touch the sky ; and I have 
been told that they never lose their foliage. I can affirm that 
I saw them as green and lovely as trees are in Spain in May, and 
some of them were in flower, some with fruit, and some in other 
conditions, according to their kind. The nightingale and other 
small birds of a thousand kinds were singing in the month of 
November when I was there ; and there were palms of six or 
eight varieties, the graceful peculiarities of each one of them being 
worthy of admiration. But besides the other trees, fruits, and 
grasses, there are wonderful pine-woods, and very extensive 
ranges of meadow land. There is honey, and there are many 
kinds of birds, and a great variety of fruits. Inland there are 
numerous mines of metals, and considerable numbers of people. 
SpaTwla is a wonder, with its hills and mountains, fine plains, 
open country, and land rich and fertile for planting and sowing, 
to bring in profit of all sorts ; for builduig towns and villages. 
The seaports there are incredibly fine, as also the magnificent rivers, 
most of which bear gold. The trees, fruits, and grasses, differ 
widely from those in Juana. There are many spices, a,nd vast 
mines of gold and other metals. The people of all the islands 
1 have discovered and taken, and those of whom I have heard, 
both men and women, go about naked as when they were born, 
except that some of the women cover one part of themselves with 
a single leaf of grass, or a cotton thing that they make for this 
purpose. They have no iron, nor steel, nor weapons, nor are 
they fit for them, because although they are well-made men 
of commanding stature, they appear extraordinarily timid. The 
only arms they have are sticks of cane, cut when in seed, with 
a sharpened stick at the end, and they are afraid to use these. 
Often I have se^it two or three men ashore to some town to hold 
converse witn them, and the natives came out in great numbers, 
and as soon as they saw our men arrive, fled without a moment's 
delay. 

I protected them from all injury, and at every point where 
I landed and succeeded in talking to them, I gave them some 
of everything I had — cloth and many other things — without 
receiving anything in return, but they are hopelessly timid peo- 
ple. It is true that since they have gained more confidence, and 



APPENDIX XXV 

are losing this fear, they are so nnsuspicious and so generous with 
what they possess, that no one who ha'd not seen it would believe 
it, never refusing anything that is asked for, and they also offer 
themselves, and show so much love that they would give their 
very hearts. Whether it be anything of great or small value, 
with any trifle of whatever kind, they are satisfied. I forbade 
worthless things being given to them, such as bits of broken bowls, 
pieces of glass, and old tags, although they were as much pleased 
to get them as if they were the finest jewels in the world. One 
sailor was found to have got for a tagged point gold of the weight 
of two and a h-alf castellanos, and others for even more worthless 
things much more ; while for new blancas they would give all 
they had, were it two or three ounces of pure gold or an arroba 
or two of spun cotton. Even bits of the broken hoops of wine- 
casks they accepted, and gave in return what they had, like fools, 
and it seemed wrong to me. I forbade it, and gave a thousand 
nice, good things that I had, to win their love, and thus I expect 
they will become Christians, and disposed to love and serve their 
Highnesses and the whole Castilian nation, and help to get for 
us things they have in abundance, which are necessary to us. 
They have no religion nor idolatry, except that they all believe 
the power of Good to be in heaven ; and firmly believed that 
I, with my ships and men, came from heaven, and with this idea 
I have been received everywhere, since they lost fear of me. 
They are, however, far from being ignorant ; indeed they are 
most ingenious men, who navigate these seas in a wonderful way, 
and describe everything well, but they never before saw people wear- 
ing clothes, nor similar vessels. Directly I reached the Indies, in 
the first isle I discovered, I took by force some of the natives, that 
from them we might gain some information of what there was 
in these parts ; and so it was that we immediately understood each 
other, either by words or signs. And these are now of great use 
wherever I take them, as they are always ready to assert that 
I come from heaven, from much intercourse they have had with 
me, and they were the first to declare this wherever I went, and 
the others ran from house to house, and to the towns around, 
crying out, " Come ! Come! and see the men from heaven ! " Then 
all, both men and women, as soon as they were reassured about 
us, came, both small and great, all bringing something to eat and 
to drink, which they presented with marvelous kindness. In the 
isles there are a great many canoes, something like rowing boats, 
of all sizes, and many are larger than an eighteen-oared galley. 
They are not very broad, as they are made of a single plank, but 
a galley could not compete with them in rowing, because they 
go with incredible speed, and with these they row about all these 
islands, which are innumerable, and carry their merchandise. 
I have seen some of these canoes with 70 and 80 men in them, 
and each had an oar. In all the islands I observed httle differ- 
ance in the appearance of the people, or in their habits and Ian- 



xxvi LETTER OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 

guage, except that they understand each other, which is remarkable. 
Therefore I hope that their Highnesses will decide upon the con- 
version of these people to our holy faith, to which they seem 
much inclined. I have already stated how I sailed 107 leagues 
along the seacoast, in a straight line from west to east, by the 
island of Juana ; according to which voyage I can assert that 
this island is larger than England and Scotland together, since 
beyond these 107 leagues there remained at the west point two 
provinces where I did not go, one of which they call Avan, the 
home of the men with tails, and these provinces are computed to be 
not less than 50 or 60 leagues in length as far as can be under- 
stood from the Indians with me who are acquainted with all 
the islands. This other Espaiiola is larger in circumference than 
all Spain from Catalonia on the seacoast to Fiienterabia in Bis- 
cay, since upon one side of a square I sailed 188 good leagues 
in a straight line from west to east. This is worth having, and 
must on no account be given up, as I have taken possession 
of it, as of all the other isles, for their Highnesses, and all 
may be more extensive than I know or can say, and I hold 
them for their Highnesses, who can command them as abso- 
lutely as the kingdoms of Castile. In Hispaniola, in the most 
convenient place, most accessible for the gold-mines and all 
commerce with the mainland, on this side and on the other, 
that of the great Khan, with which there would be great trade 
and profit, I have taken possession of a large town, which 
I named the City of Naiudad, and made fortifications there, 
which should be completed by this time, and I have left in 
it men enough to hold it, with arms, artillery, and provisions 
for more than a year ; and boats with master seamen of all kinds 
to make others ; and I am so friendly with the king of that 
country that he was proud to call me his brother and hold me 
as such, and even should he change his mind and wish to quarrel 
with my people, neither he nor his subjects know what arms are, 
and wear no clothes, as I have said. They are the least coura- 
geous people in the world, so that only the men remaining there 
could destroy the whole region, and run no risk if they know how 
to behave themselves properly. In all these islands the men 
seem to be satisfied with one wife, and allow as many as twenty 
to their chief or king. The women appear to me to work harder 
than the men, and so far as I can hear they have nothing of 
their own, for I think I perceived that what one had others shared, 
especially food. In the islands so far I have found no monsters, 
as some expected, but, on the contrary, they are people of very 
handsome appearance. They are not black, as in Guinea, 
though their hair is straight and coarse, as it does not grow 
where the sun's rays are too ardent. And in truth the sun has 
extreme power here, since it is within 26 degrees of the equinoc- 
tial line. In these islands there are mountains where the cold 
this winter was very severe, but the people endure it from habit. 



APPENDIX xxvii 

and with the aid of the viands they eat with a great quantity 
of various very hot spices. As for monsters I have found no 
trace of them except at one point in the second isle, as you enter 
the Indies, which is inhabited by a people considered in all the 
isles as most ferocious, who eat human flesh. These possess 
many canoes, with which they overrun all the isles of India, steal- 
ing and seizing all they can. They are not worse-looking than 
the others, except that they wear their hair long like women, and 
use bows and arrows of the same cane, with a sharp stick at the 
end for want of iron, of which they have none. They are 
ferocious compared to these other races, who are extremely cow- 
ardly, but I only heard this from the others. They are said 
to make treaties of marriage with the women in the first isle to 
be met with coming from Spain to the Indies, where there are 
no men. These women have no feminine occupation, but use 
bows and arrows of cane like those before-mentioned, and cover 
and arm themselves with plates of copper, of which they have 
a great quantity. Another island, I am told, is larger than 
Espafiola, where the natives have no hair, and where there is 
countless gold ; and from them all I bring with me Indians 
to testify to this. To speak, in conclusion, only of what has 
been done during this hurried voyage, their Highnesses will see 
that I can give them as much gold as they choose, with the very 
small aid their Highnesses may grant me now, spices, cotton, 
as much as their Highnesses may command to be shipped, and 
gum-mastic as much as their Highnesses choose to send for, 
which until now has only been found in Greece, in the isle of 
Chios, and the Signoria can get its own price for it. As much 
lign-aloe as they command to be shipped, and as many slaves 
as they choose to send for, all heathens. I believe we have found 
rhubarb, and cinnamon ; and many other things of value will 
be discovered by the men I left behind me, as I stayed nowhere 
when the wind allowed me to pursue my voyage, except in the 
city of Navidad, which I left fortified and safe; and, indeed, 
I might have accomplished much more, had the crews served me as 
they ought to have done. The eternal and almighty God, our Lord, 
it is who gives to all who walk in his way victory over things 
apparently impossible, and in this case signally so, because 
although these lands had been imagined and talked of before they 
were seen, most listened incredulously to what was thought to be 
but an idle tale. Thus, then, our Redeemer has given victory 
to our most illustrious King and Queen, and to their kingdoms 
rendered famous by this glorious event, at which all Christendom 
should rejoice, celebrating it with great festivities and solemn 
Thanksgivings to the Holy Trinity, with fervent prayers for the 
high distinction that will accrue to them from turning so many 
peoples to our holy faith ; and also for the temporal benefits that 
not only Spain but all Christian nations will obtain from the 
resources and gain thus open to them. Thus I record what has 



xxviii LETTER OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 

happened in a brief Epistle written on board the Caravel, above 
the Canary Isles, on the 15th of February, 1493. 

Yours to Command, The Admiral. 

POSTSCRIPT WITHIN THE LETTER. 

Since writing the above, being in the Sea of Castile, so much 
wind arose, south southeast, that I was forced to lighten the 
vessels, to run into this port of Lisbon to-day, which was the 
most extraordinary thing in the world, from whence I resolved 
to write to Their Highnesses. In all the Indies I always found 
the temperature like that of May. Where I went in thirty-three 
days I returned in twenty-eight, except that these gales have 
detained me fourteen days, knocking about in this sea. Here 
all seamen say that there has never been so rough a winter, nor 
so many vessels lost. Done the 14th day of March. 



APPENDIX xxi 

COLLATERAL READINGS 

DISCOVERY AND COLONIZATION 

Fiske's "Old Virginia and Her Neighbors." 
Doyle's "Virginia, Maryland, and the Carolinas." 
Doyle's "The Puritan Colonies." 
Fiske's "The Beginnings of New England." 
Coffin's " Old Times in the Colonies." 
Parkman's Works. 

THE REVOLUTION. 

Bancroft's " History of the United States." 

Fiske's " The Critical Period of American History." 

Lodge's " George Washington." 

Morse's " Benjamin Franklin." 

Tyler's "Patrick Henry." 

Coffin's " Boys of '76." 

Sumner's " Robert Morris." 

Roosevelt's " Winning of the West." 

Hinsdale's " The Old Northwest." 

NATIONALITY. 

Schouler's "History of the United States." 

Mc Master's " History of the People of the United States." 

Morse's "Alexander Hamilton; " "John Adams." 

Von Hoist's "John C. Calhoun." 

Schouler's "Thomas Jefferson." 

Roosevelt's " Naval War of 18 12." 

Johnston's "American Politics." 

Schurz's " Henry Clay." 

Morse's " John Quincy Adams." 

Sumner's " Andrew Jackson." 

Roosevelt's "Thomas H. Benton." 

CIVIL WAR. 

Nicolay and Hay's "Abraham Lincoln." 

Rhodes's " History of the United States." 

Mahon's "The Gulf and Inland Waters;" " Farragut." 

" Battles and Leaders of the Civil War." 

Alexander Stephens's " View of the War between the States.'' 

RECONSTRUCTION AND NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. 

Shaler's " History of the United States." 
Johnston's " American Politics." 
Blaine's "Twenty Years in Congress." 
Andrews' "Last Quarter of a Century." 



APPENDIX 



PRONOUNCING VOCABULARY' 



Algonquin, S.I-gon'kwin 
Americus Vespucius, a-m5r'i-kus 

ves-poot'chee-us 
Andre, an'dra 
Apache, a-pa'cha 
Bahama, ba-ha'ma 
Balboa, biil-bo'ii 
Barbary, bar'ba-ri 
Beauregard, bor'giir' 
Bering, be'ring 
Bonhomme Richard, bon-hotn'- 

re'shjir' 
Bouquet, boo-ka' 
Buena Vista, bu'na vTs'ta 
Cabral, ka-briil' 
Cadiz, kad'iz 
Cartiej, kar'ty-a' 
Cavite, kii-ve-ta' 
Chile, che'la 

Cibola, se'bo-lo (Span. the'bo-Ia) 
Coronado, ko-ro-nii'do 
De Ayllon, da-il-yon' 
Delfshaven, delfs'ha'ven 
De Gourgues, deh-goorg' 
Duquesne, du-kan' 
Garcia, gar'se-a 
Genet, zheh-na' 
Gorges, gOr'jez 
Haiti, ha'tl 
Iroquois. Ir-d-kwoi' 
luka, i-u'kii 

Jean Ribaut, zhon re'bo' 
Joliet, zho'le-a' 



Kearsarge, ker'siirj 

Kosciusko, kos-si-us'ko 

Kossuth, kosh-oot' 

Ladrones, la-dronz(Sp. lad-ro'n"S8) 

Lafayette, la'fa'ySt' 

La Salle, la sal' 

Leyden, ll'den 

Luzon, loo-zon' 

Magellan, ma-jel'an 

Montcalm, mont-kam' 

Mindanao, men-da-na'o 

Narvaez, nar-va'6th 

Nicaragua, ne-ka-ra'gwa 

Nueces, nwa'ses 

Pa nay, pa-nT' 

Philippine, fil'ip-in 

i-» — III- 

Ponce de Leon, pon'tha da la-on' 

Powhatan, pow'-ha-tan' 

Pulaski, pu-las'kee 

Raleigh, raw'li 

Rapidan, rap'id-an' 

Resaca de la Palma, ra-sa'ka da 

lii pal'ma 

Rio Grande, re'o gran'da 

Rochambeau. ro'shon'bo' 

Santiago, san-te-a'go 

San Juan, san hoo-an' 

Schuyler, ski'ler 

Slidell, slT-del'" 

Steuben, stu'ben (Ger. Stoi'-ben) 

Stuyvesant, stl'vesant 

Sulu, soo'loo' 

Verrazzano, ver-ra-tsa'no 



* Key to the marks: ale, senate, care, arm, all, last; eve, event, 
6nd; Ice; old, obey, orb, odd; use, unite; oi as in oil; a, e obscure. 
In Spanish words z is lisped, also c when followed by e or i. For 
example, Nueces is pronounced nwa'thes, and final s is sharp s. 



INDEX 



Abenakis, 63. 

Abercroinbie, James, 109. 

Abbott, Colonel, 111. 

Abolitionists, 228, 237. 

Acadia, 89, 96, 99. 

Acadians, the, 107. 

Adams, Charles Francis, 279, 311. 

Adams, John, 113, 126, 133, 149, 1-53, 161, 

185-189. 
Adams, John Quincy, 218,319,323, 228. 
Adams, Samuel, 122, 126, 158. 
Africa, 8. 

Aguinaldo, Emilio, 373, 380. 
Ai.\-Ia-Chapelle, treaty of, 103. 
Alabama, 214, 269. 
Alabama, the, 297,309. 
Alabama, claims, 309. 
Albany, 62, 75, 92, 155. 
Alaska, 2.39, 305, 362, 382. 
Albemarle, the IDuke of, 83. 
Akft, the, 202. 
Alleghany Mts., 91, 100. 
Allegheny River, 105. 
Alexandria, 7. 
Alfonso XIII, 364. 
Alger, Russell A., 359. 
Algiers, 191. 

Algonquins, 9, 63, 77, 94. 
Alien and Sedition laws, 187. 
Allen, Ethan, 130. 
Amendments to the Constitution, 156,165, 

189, 219, 303, 305, 310, 312. 
Americus Vespucius, 19. 
Amherst, Jeffrey, 109. 
Amidas and Barlow, Captains, 24. 
Anderson, Robert, 270. 
Andre John, 143. 
Andros, Sir Edmund, 76, 81, 92. 
Annapolis Convention, 155. 
Annapolis, navy school at, 253. 
Anne, Queen, 99. 
Antietam, battle of, 285. 
Anti-Chinese movement, 321. 
Anti-Federalists, 157, 181. 
Anti-slavery, 227, 245, 260. 
Apalachee Bay, 19. 
Apponiatto.'c, 299. 
Arabs, commerce with, 7. 
Arbitration, 236, 309, 340, 354, 362. 
Army of the Cumberland, 295. 
Army of the Ohio, 281. 
Army of the Potomac, 281. 
Army of Virginia, 285. 
Army of Northern Virginia, 293. 
Arnold, Benedict, 140, 143, 147. 
Arthur, Chester A., 323, 324-331. 
Articles of Confederation, 136, 153. 
Ashburton, Lord, 236. 
Assumption of State debts, 165. 
Astor, John Jacob, ■239. 
Astoria, 239. 
Atchison, 259. 
Atlanta, 295. 



Atlantic cable, 308. 

Audubon, John J., 230. 

Australian ballot, 344. 

Ayllon, Vasquez de, 19. , 

Azores, 8. 

Aztecs, 10, 19. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, 38. 

Balboa, 19. 

Baltimore, Lord, 82. 

Baltimore, the, 370. 

Bank of United States, 179, 224, 226 236. 

Banks, Nathaniel P., 285. 

Banks, State, 224, 227, 

Barbary States, 191. 

Barre, Isaac, 116. 

Barton, Clara, 364. 

Battle above the clouds, 291. 

Beacon Hill, .53. 

Beauregard, G. T., 274, 282. 

Belligerency, recognition of, 142, 279, 353. 

Bell, John, 266. 

Bemis Heights, 141. 

Bennington, battle of, 140. 

Benton, Thomas H., 226. 

Berceau, the, 186. 

Bering Sea, 340. 

Berkeley, Sir William, 37. 

Bidwell, John, 343. 

Bienville, Celeron de, 103. 

Bills of credit, 130. 

Bimetallism, o5f). 

Birney, James Gillespie, 237. 

Black, James, 312. 

Black Sea, 7. 

Blaine, James G., 329. 

Blanco, General, 364. 

Bland Silver bill, .321. 

Bliss, Cornelius N., 359. 

Blockade, Civil war, 278, 296; War of 1812, 

203; Spanish-American war, 368. 
Bolivar, Simon, 339. 
Bonds, U. S.,165, 287, 368. 
Bonhomme Richard, the, 145. 
Boone, Daniel, 176. 
Booth, John Wilkes, 301. 
Border States, 236, 270. 
Boroughs, 33. 
Boscawen, Admiral, 109, 
Boston founded, 53. 
Boston, 81, 121, 128, 134, 168, 307. 
Boston massacre, 122. 
Boston tea partv, 124. 
Bo5/o«, the, 186,' 370. 
Boundary lines, 1S3, 213, 216. 236, 239, 245, 

309. 383. 
Bouquet Henry, 111. 
Braddock's defeat, 106. 
Bradford, William, 46, 48. 
Bradstreet, Simon, 93. 
Bragg, Braxton, 291. 
Brandywine, the battle of the, 139. 
Brandywine, the, 218. 

[xxxi] 



INDEX. 



Brant, Joseph, 144. 

Brazil, 19. 

BreckcnridKc John C, 262, 266. 

Breed's Hill, IIU. 

Brewer, John J., 301. 

Brewster, William, 4C. 

Bright, John. 27'.). 

British Board of Trade. W. 

Brooklyn Heights, battle of, 135. 

Brooklyn, the, 374. 

Brown, Henry B., 361. 

Brown, John, 2(15. 

Brown, Jacob, 201. 

Bryan, William Jennings, 3.57. 

Bryant, V/illiam CuUen, 2;W, 259, 262. 

Buchanan, James, 2C1, 26-'-271. 

Buckner, Simon B., 282, 332, 357. 

Buell, Don Carlos, 281. 

Biiei;'\ Vista, 242. 

Bull Run, 'i-SO, 2S.5. 

Bunker Hill, l:!l, 218. 

Burgesses, House of, 34. 

Burgoyne, John. IMO, 140. 

Burke, Edmund, IIS. 

Burlingame. Anson, 306, 321. 

Burnside, Ambrose E., 285. 

Burr, Aaron, 18S, l',)5. 

Bushy Run, battle of. 111. 

Butler, Benjamin P., 283, 329. 

Cable telegraph, 308. 

Cabot, John, is. 

Cabinet, President's, xix, .Appendix. 

Cabral, 19. 

Cadillac, 91. 

Cadiz, 374. 

Calhoun, John C.,200, 218, 225, 249, 326. 

California, 239-251. 

Calvert, George, 82. 

Camara, Admiral, 374. 

Cambridge, 56, 132. 

Camden, S. C, battle of, 146. 

Cameron, Simon, 265. 

Canary Islands, 16. 

Canada, 110. 

Canadian Commission, 362. 

Canal, Erie,_2r.). 

Canovas, Sefior, 364. 

Cape Breton Island, 103, 110. 

Cape Cod. 4(1. 

Ca])c Verde Islands. 371. 

Capitol at Washington, 189. 

Carleton, Sir Guy, 132. 

Carolina, 20, 83. 

Carpenters' Hall, 126. 

Carpetbaggers, 305, 317. 

Cartagena, 102. 

Carteret, Sir George, 75. 

Cartier, Jacques, 22. 

Carver, John, 46. 

Cass, Lewis, 247, 264. 

Catholics, 55, 82. 

"Caucus." the, 188, 218. 

Cavaliers, 35. 

Cavite, 370. 

Cedar Creek, 295. 

Cedar Mountain, 285. 

Cemetery Ridge, 289. 

Census, the, 170, 307, 319, 341. 

Centennials, 313, 3U, 325, 334, 342. 

Central Pacific R. R.. 308. 

Cervera, Admiral, 371. 



Champion Hills, 290. 

Champlain, Samuel de, 22. 

Chancellorsville, 288. 

Charles I, 35, 52, f.5. 

Charles II, 73, 80, 85. 

Charles River, 77. 

Charleston, .S4, 99, 135. 

Charleston, the, 371. 

Charlestown, 52, 131. 

Charters, 25, 30, 47, 52, 6-1, 74, 75, 81, 95. 

Charter Oak, 81, <)4. 

Chase, Salmon P., 250, 265, 276, 305. 

Chattanooga, 291. 

Cherokees, 10, 232. 316. 

Cherry Valley, massacres of, 144. 

Chesapeake Bay, 20.'), 2X3. 

Chesapeake, the, 197, 203. 

Chicago fire, the, 307. 

Chickahominy, 294. 

Chickamauga, 291. 

Chickasaws, 316. 

China, 30(), 321, 327, 3.3.3. 

Chippewa, battle of, 204. 

Choctaws, 88, 316, 3.55. 

Church of England, 34. 

Civil Service reform, 317, 327, 33L 

Civil Rights bill, 304. 

Civil war, 274-303. 

Claiborne, William C, 193. 

Clarendon, the Earl of, 83. 

Clark, George Rogers, 144. 

Clark, William, 193. 

Clarke, John, 74. 

Clav, Henry, 196, 200, 215, 218, 237, 249 

2.'ir). 
Clermont, the, 211. 

Cleveland, Grover. 330,331-337, 344-357 
Clinton, Dewitt, 220. 
Clinton, George, 1-58, 195. 
Clinton, Sir Henry, 130, 142, 146. 
Cobden, Richard, 279. 
Cold Harbor, 294. 
Colorado, 317. 
Columbia, the, 239. 
Columbia River, 194, 2.39. 
Columbus, Christopher, 14-18, 384. 
Comanches, 10. 
Compromise tariff, 226. 
Comptroller of the Currency, 287. 
Concord, battle of, 128. 
Concord, the, 370. 
Confederate States, 269, 278. 
Confederation of the United States, 130, 

133, iri2, 1.55. 
Confederation, articles of, 1.53. 
(Tonfederation of New England, 64. 
Congress, Continental, 126, 130, 153, 160 

174,224. 
Congress, U. S., 156, 161, 200, 243, 249, 265, 

3.M). 
Congress, Stamp Act, 118. 
Connecticut, 58, 64. 
Constellation, the, 186. 
Constitution, the, 202, 203. 
Constitution, the United States, v-xix. 

Contract labor laws, 338. 
Contraband of war, 286. 
Convention, the Federal, (1787), 155. 
Conventions, national, 225, 235, 265, 306, 

329, 3.56. 
Continental Congress, 125-160, 173. 



INDEX. 



Convention, the Hartford, 206. 

" Conway Cabal," 142. 
Cooper, James Fenimore, 230. 
Cooper, Peter, 317. 
Corinth, 282. 
Corregidor Island, 370. 
Cornwallis, Lord Charles, 137,146. 
Coronado, Francisco de, 20. 
Cortelyou, George B., 390. 
Cortereal, 19. 
Cortez, Hernando, 19. 
Cotton, 164, 170, 19S, 214, 280. 
Cotton expositions, 326. 
Council for New England, 47, 51. 
Cowpens, 147. 
Co.\ey, J. S., 350. 
Crawford, William H., 218. 
Creeks, 88, 204, 212, 316, 355. 
Cromwell, Oliver, 36, 57, 65. 
Crown Point, 103, 109, 130. 
Cuba, 16, 99, 110, 256, 309, 352, 363. 
Curtis, George William, 262. 
Cusfr, George A., 316. 
Cuttyhunk Island, 41. 

Dakotas, 10. 

Dakota, North, 338. 

Dakota, South, 338. 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 31. 

Dallas, Alexander, 207. 

Dana, Charles A., 259. 

Dare, Virginia, 25. 

Davenport, John, .58. 

Davis, Jefferson. 241, 2.50, 269, 300. 

Deane, Silas, 14-5. 

Dearborn, Henry, 202. 

Decatur, Stephen, 191. 

Decimal system, 180. 

Declaration of Independence, 134. 

Deerfield, 99. 

Delaware, 87, 278. 

Delaware, Lord, 31. 

Delfshaven, 45. 

Democratic party, 222, 323-247, 262, 330, 344 

Democratic-Republican party, 171, 181. 

Detroit, 91. 

Dewey, George, 369. 

Dieskau,107. 

Dingley tariff, 361. 

Dinwiddle, Robert, 104. 

Directory, French, 180, 185. 

Dorchester, 56. 

Douglas, Stephen A. ,258, 263, 266, 275. 

Dow, Neal, .323. 

Drake, Sir Francis, 23. 

Dreuillettes, Father, 90. 

Dred Scott decision, 262. 

Duquesne, Marquis, 104. 

Dutch settlements, 62. 

Dutch West India Company, 62. 

East Jersey, 75, 87. 
Early, Jub'al, 280. 
Eaton, Theophilus, 58. 
Edison, Thomas A., 345. 
Education, ,5,<^ 60. 
El Caney, 373. 

Election of president, 160, 189. 
Electoral commission, 318. 
Electoral college, 160. 
Electoral Count bill, 318. 
Electricity, application of, 243, 308, 315, 
345. 



Eliot, John, 77, 90. 

Elizabeth, Queen, 23, 43. 

Emancipation of slaves, 286, 288, 303. 

Embargo Act, 198. 

Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 262. 

Endicott, John, 52. 

Eng;lish, William H., 323. 

Episcopal churches, 53. 

Ericsson, John, 229, 283. 

Ericson, Leif, 15. 

"Era of good feeling," 209. 

Erie Canal, the, 219. 

Eskimos, 9. 

Essex, the, 202. 

Evarts, William M., 315. 

Everett, Edward, 257. 

Fairbanks, Charles W., 394. 
Fair Oaks, 284. 
Faneuil Hall, 123, 134, 238. 
Federal courts, 156, 163. 
Farragut, David, 283. 
Federal Hall, New York City, 161. 
Federalist party, 157. 
Federalist, The, 159. 
Ferdinand and Isabella, 15-18. 
Ferguson, Patrick, 146. 
Field, Cyrus W., 308. 
Field, Stephen J., 361. 
Fifteenth amendment, 310. 
Filibustering. 256, 309, ;!53. 
Fillmore, Millard, 247, 251-255, 261. 
Five Nations, 9, 91, 94. 
Flag, American, 132, 139, 270, 275, 300. 
Fletcher, Benjamin, 95. 
Florida, 20, 110, 115, 183, 212, 238. 
Florida, the, 297. 
Flying Squadron, the, 368. 
Foote, Andrew H., 282. 
Forbes, Joseph, 109. 
Fort Crown Point, 103, 109, 130. 
Fort Donelsoii, 282. 
Fort Duquesne, 105, 109. 
Fort Edward, 140. 
Fort Fisher, 298. 
Fort Henry, 282. 
Fort Lebosuf, 104. 
Fort Lee, 136. 
Fort McHenry, 205. 
Fort Meigs, 203. 
Fort Monroe, 300. 
Fort Moultrie, 135. 
Fort Necessity, 105. 
Fort Niagara, 103, 109. 
Fort Pinckney, 269. 
Fort Pitt, 109. 
Fort Stanwix, 140. 
Fort Sumter, 209, 274, 300. 
Fort Ticonderoga, 109, 130. 
Fort Sullivan, 135. 
Fort Venango, 104. 
Fort Washington. 136. 
Fort William Henry, 108. 
Fountain of Youth. 19, 384. 
Fourteenth amendment, 304. 
Fox, George, 85. 
Foxes, 232. 

France, 22. 94, 103, 111, 142, 180, 185, 805. 
Francis I, IS. 

Franklin, the State of, 178. 
Franklin, Benjamin, 98, 105, 118, 133, 145. 
149. 155. 



INDEX. 



Freedmen's bureau, 305. 

Free-soil party, '24G, 255. 

Free trade, 220. 32:5, 329, :136, 344. 

Fremont, John C, 242, 262,2'JS. 

French discoveries, l.S. 

French flett in Revolutionary war, 142, 148. 

French revolution, ISO. 

Frobisher, Sir Martin, 23. 

Frolic, the, 202. 

Frontenac, Count de, 94. 

Fugitive slave law, 250. 

Fuller, Melville W., 361. 

Fulton, Robert, 211. 

" Gadsden Purchase," the, 245. 

"Gag rule," the, 22«. 

Gage, Lyman J., 359. 

Gage, Thomas, 122. 

Gallatin, Albert, 171. 

Garcia, Calixto, 373. 

Garfield. James A., 323, 324. 

Garrison, William Lloyd, 227. 

Gary, James A., 359. 

Gaspee, the, 12;>. 

Gates, Horatio, 141, 14(1. 

■•General Ccuirfof Mass., 53. 

" General Court" of N. E., 65. 

Genet, "Citizen, 1S2. 

Geneva award, the, 309. 

Genoa, 14. 

Geographical Congress, 328. 

George H, 103. 

GeorgeIlI,116, 117, 132. 

George Washington, the, 191. 

Georgia, SS, 14(;, 159, 269. 

Georgia, the, 297. 

Gerry, Elbridgc, 185. 

Gettysburg, 289. 

Ghent, treaty of, 206. 

Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 23. 

Gist, Christopher, 104. 

Goffe, William, 75. 

Gold in Mexico and Peru, 19; in the Black 

Hills, 316 ; in California, 247 . 
Gomez, Maximo. 352. 
Gorges, Sir Ferdiiiando, 64. 
Gosnoki, Bartholomew, 41. 
Gourgues, Dominic, 21. 
Government of the United States, 156, 217. 
Grangers, the, 319. 

Grant, Ulysses S., 241, 281, 306-307-318, 331. 
Grasse, Count de, 148. 
Gray, Horace, 3(")1. 
Grav, Robert, 2:59. 
Great Eastern, the, 308. 
Greece, 217. 

Greeley, Horace, 259, 265, 311. 
Greelv, Lieutenant Adolphus W., 328. 
" Greenbacks," 2S7, 312, 317. 
Green, Nathaniel, 147. 
Guadalupe, treaty of, 244. 
Guam. 371. 
Guerriere, the, 202. 
Guilford Courthouse, 147. 

" Hail Columbia," 161, 186. 
Haiti, 16, IS, 192. 
Hale, John Parker, 25L 
ILnle, Nathan, 136. 
Halleck, Henry W., 280. 
Halstead,Murat,311. 



Hamilton, Alexander, 159, 160, 164, 179, 195. 

Hampden, John, 57. 

Hampton Court, 43. 

Hancock, John, 12.S, 134. 

Hancock, Winfield S„ 322. 

Harper's Ferry, 264, 279. 

Harrison, Benjamin, :«6-337-344, 

Harrison, William Henry, 195, 200,827, 235. 

Harlan, John M., 361. 

Hartford, .56, ,5S, SL 

Hartford Convention, the, 206. 

Harvard College, 60. 

Havana, 361. 

Hawaii, 340, 3.51,377. 

Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 230. 

Hayes, Rutherford B., 317,318, 319-323. 

Hayne, Robert, 221,226. 

Hemietta Maria, S2. 

Henry, Patrick. 117, 12;^, 126, 144, 158. 

Henry the Na\igator, 8. 

Hessians, 133, 137,148. 

Hiacoomes, 77. 

Hiawatha, 11. 

Higglnson, Thomas, 52. 

Hobart, Garret A.. 3.56. 

Hobson, Richmond P., 372. 

Holland, Pilgrims in, 44. 

Holy Alliance. 215. 

Homestead bills, 307, 338. 

Hood, John B., 295. 

Hooker, Joseph, 286. 

Hooker, Thomas, ,56. 

House of Burgesses, 34,72. 

House of Representatives, 156, 188, 217 

223, 359. 
Houston, Samuel, 237, 250. 
Howard, Oliver O., 296. 
Howe, Admiral Lord, 1.35. 
Howe, Sir William, 130,140. 
Hudson, Henry. 22. 
Hugo, Victor, 249. 
Hull, Isaac, 202. 
Hull, William, 202. 
Hunt, Thomas, 41, 42. 
Hunt, Walter, 229. 
Hunter, David, 293. 
Hutchinson, Anne, 56. 

Iceland, 15. 

Idaho, 338. 

Illinois, 210. 

Immigration, 2.52,355. 

Impeachment of President Johnson, 305. 

Impressment of American sailors, 180, 191 

Independence Hall, 134, 270. 

Indenture, 32, 72. 

Indiana, 210. 

Indiana, the, 374. 

Indian Territory, 232, 316. 

Indians, 9, 16, 57, 63, 78, 91, 106, 144, 175. 

Insurgeante, /.', 186. 

Internal improvements, 212. 

International yacht race, 253. 

Interstate Con. nercc Act, 335. 

Iowa, 238. 

Iowa, the, 374. 

" Ironclad Oath," 304. 

Iroquois, 9, 91, 94, 107, 144. 

Irving, Washington, 230, 262, 

Iuka,2'<2. 

Jackson, Andrew, 178, 1%, 205, 218, 222, 223-231 

Jackson, Thomas J., 284. 



INDEX. 



James I, 25, 4S. 

James II, 81, 94. 

Jamestown, 26,39. 

Jasper, William, 135. 

Java, the, 203. 

Jay, John, 126, 149, 160, 163, 181. 

Jay Treaty, 183. 

Jefferson, Thomas, 34, 117, 133, 163, 188-199. 

John 11,8,15. 

"Join or Die," 105. 

Jesuit missionaries, 61, 90. 

Johnson, Andrew, 282, 298, 301. 303-306. 

Johnson, Sir William, 107. 

Johnston, Albert Sidnev, 282. 

Johnston, Joseph E., 279,332. 

Joliet, Louis, 90. 

Jones, John Paul, 145. 

Kalb, John de, 139. 
Kansas, 259. 

Kansas-Nebraska bill, 258. 
Kearney, Stephen VV., 242. 
Kearsarge, the, 297. 
Kelley, H. J.,240. 
Kenesaw Mountain, 295. 
Kennebec River, 41. 
Kent, James, 232. 
Kentucky, 176, 214, 277, 278. 
Key, Francis Scott, 205. 
Kidd, Captain William, 98. 
King George's War, 103. 
King Philip's War, 78. 
Kingston, battle of, 79. 
King, Rufus, 171. 
King William's War, 94. 
King's Mountain, 146. 
Know Nothing party, 260. 
Knoxville, 178. 
Knox, Henry, 164. 
Kosciusko, 139. 
Kossuth, Louis, 254. 
"Ku KluxKIan,"310. 

Labor Reform party, 312. 

Labor troubles, 320, 349. 

Labor enactments, 333, 3.36. 

Lafayette, Marquis Gilbert Metier de, 139, 

147, 217. 
Lake Erie, battle of, 204. 
Lake George, 108. 
Laud, Archbishop, 56, 65. 
Lanier, Sidney, 314. 
Laramie, Fort, 248. 
La Salle, Robert de, 90. 
Laudonniere, 21. 
Lawrence, Captain. James, 203. 
Lawrence, the, 204. 

Lecompton constitution, the, 260, 263. 
Lee, Charles, 136, 143. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 120, 133. 
Lee, Fitzhugh,364. 
Lee, Robert E., 243,265, 269, 284, 310 
Leon, Juan Ponce de, 19, 384. 
Leopard, the, 197. 
Leverett, Governor, 74, 80. 
Lewis and Clark, 193.239. 
Lexington, 129, 313. 
Leyden, 44. 

Liberty party, 237-238, 246. 
Liberty Trees, 123. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 243, 2G3, 265, 270, 274-303 
Livingston, William, 1'26. 



Livingston, Robert R., 133, 161. 

L' Insurgeante, ISi'i. 

Locke, John, 84,201. 

Logan, John A., 295, 3'29. 

Logstown, 104. 

Lome, Selior de, 365. 

London Company, '25, 45. 

Longfellow, Henry W., 262. 

Long Island, battle of, 135. 

Long, John D.,359. 

Long Parliament, 35, 65. 

Lookout Mountain, 291. 

Lopez, Narcisso, 256. 

Louis XIV, 86, 91,94. 

Louis XV, 103. 

Louis XVI, 142, 180. ' 

Louisburg, 103. 

Louisiana, 91, 192. 

Lovejoy, Elijah P., 238. 

Maceo, Antonio, 352. 

Macedonian, the, 202. 

Macon bill, the, 199. 

Madison, James, 150, 199-208. 

Magellan, 19. 

Maine, 04, 214. 

Maine, the, 364. 

Malays, 340, 384. 

Malietoa, 362. 

Manhattan Island, 22. 

Manila, 369, 370. 

Manufactories, American, 114, 210, 25Z 

Marietta, O., 175. 

Maria Christina 304. 

Marion, Francis, 146. 

Marquette, Pierre, 90. 

Marshall, John, 185 190, 217. 

Marti, Jose, 3.52. 

Martha's Vineyard, 41, 77. 

Mary II, Queen, 93. 

Maryland, 82, '277. 

Mason, James M., 280. 

Mason and Dixon's line, 275. 

Mason, John, 64 n. 

Massachusetts, 95. 

Massachusetts Bay, 42. 

Massachusetts Bay Company, 52. 

Massasoit, 78. 

Matthews, Stanley, 311. 

Maximilian in Mexico, 305. 

Mayflower, the, 45. 

Mayhew, Thomas, 77. 

McClellan, Geo. B., 279, 298. 

McCormick, Cyrus H., '229. 

McDowell, Irwin, 279. 

McKenna, Joseph, 3.59. 

McKinley tariff, 339, 3.50. 

McKinley, William, 3.56, 3.58-389. 

McPherson, James B.. 295. 

Meade, Geo. G., 289. 293. 

Mediterranean Sea, 7. 

Medicine men, 11. 

Memphis, 289. 

Menendet, ?edro de, 20. 

P-lerritt, Wesley, 373. 

" Merrymount," 49. 

Merrimac, the, 283. 

Merrimac, the collier, 372. 

Mestizos, 384. 

Mexico, 19, '215. 241,305. 

Mexican war, 241-245. 

Miamis, the, 175, 200. 

Michigan, 210, 232. 



zxzvi 



INDEX. 



Miles, Nelson A., 368. 

Milton, John, 201. 

Minnesota, 265. 

Mint, the U.S., 179. 

Missionary Ridge, 291. 

Mississippi, 1«3, 1',).'), 214, 269,305. 

Mississippi River, 20, 90, 103, 149, 174. 

Mississippi Territory, 183. 

Missouri, 214,278. 

Missouri Compromise, the, 215, 258, 263. 

270. 
Modocs, 315. 
Mohegans, 63. 
Mohawks, 13, 78. 
Monitor., the, 283. 
Monmouth, N. J., battle of, 142. 
Monometallism, 356. 
Monroe doctrine, the, 216, 241, 254, 257, 335, 

383. 
Monroe, James, 171, 208, 209-219. 
Montana, 338. 
Montcalm, Marquis de, 108. 
Monterey, battle of, 241. 
Montgomery, Richard, 132. 
Montojo, Admiral, 371. 
Montreal, 22. 
Monts, Sieur de, 22. 
Morgan, Daniel, 147. 
Mormons, 248. 
Morris, Robert, 153'. 
Morristovvn, N. J., 137i 
Morro of Santiago, 371, 
Morse, S. F. B.,33&ri. 
Morton, Levi P., 336. 
Morton, Thomas, 49. 
Mott, Lucretia, 251. 
Moultrie, William, 135. 
Mound builders, 11. 
Mount Vernon, 102, 150, 186. 
"Mugwumps," 331. 
Murfreesboro,291. 
Muskohgees, 10. 
Mutiny Act, 121. 

Nantuckei 77. 

Napoleon I 192, 199, 205. 

Napoleon II.. 305. 

NarraganbCtts, 63, 78. 

Narvaez, Pamfilo de, 19. 

Nashville, 178. 

Nast. Thomas, 311. 

Natick,77. 

National Bank, the, 179, 224, 226,236, 287. 

National Republican Parly, 220, 227. 

Native American Party, 200. 

National Pike Road, the, 212. 

National Republicans, 220. 

Naturalization, 187. 

Navigation Acts, 80. 

Navy, the U . S . , 186, 253, 354. 

Nebraska, 306. 

Negroes, 32. 

Neutrality, 181, 279, 369. 

New Amsterdam, 62. 

New England, 41, 59. 

Newfoundland, 18. 

New France, 18, 89. 

New Hami)shire, 64. 

New Haven, 58, 64. 

New Jersey, 45, 75, 81. 

New Mexico, 20, 242. 

New Netherlands, 62. 



New Orleans, 103, 110, 193. 

New Orleans, battle of, 206. 

" New South," 326. 

Newton, Sir Isaac, 201. 

Newport, Christopher, 26. 

New York, 75, 81, 95, 140, 1.58, 160, 

New York City, 75, 81, 118, 166, 168, 256. 

New York, the, 374. 

Niagara, the, 204. 

Nicaragua Canal, 335. 

Mno. the, 16,347. 

Nipmucks, 78. 

Non-importation Act, 197. 

Non-intercourse Act, 198. 

North Atlantic fleet at Santiago, 374. 

North Carolina-, 85. 

North Castle, 136. 

North Virginia, 25, 40. 

North, Lord, 122, 149. 

Northwest Territory, 174. 

Nova Scotia, 89, 95, 99. 

Nueces River, 241. 

Nullification theory, 188, 224, 226. 

O'Conor, Charles, 312. 

Oglethorpe, James, 87, 103. 

Ohio, 195. 

Ohio Company, 104. 

Oklahoma, 337. 

•'Old Ironsides," 202. 

"Old Dominion," 36. 

Olympia, the, 369. 

" Omaha Trans-Mississippi Exposition," 

361. 
" Omnibus," bill. Clay's, 250. 
Ordinance of 1787, 173, 214. 
Ordinance of Secession, 267. 
Oregon, 239, 265. 
Oregon, the, 371, 374. 
Osceola, 2;>2. 
Ostend manifesto, 257. 
Ottawas. 110. 
Oswego, 108, 140. 
Otis, Elwell S., 378. 
Otis, James,. 115, 16L 

Pakenham, Sir Edward, 206. 

Palmer, John M., 357. 

Palo Alto, 241. 

Palos, 10. 

Panama Canal, 335; Treaty, 391. Rep., 891. 

Pan-American Congress, 339; E.xposition, 

388 
Panic of 1837, 233; 1873, 312; 1893, 348. 
Paper money, 151, 287. 
Paris, treaty of. 149, 379. 
Party platform, the, 225. 
Patent office, 170, 230. 
Patterson, Robert, 279. 
Pairoons, 62. 
Peckham, RufusW., 361. 
Penn. Sir William, 85. 
Pemberton, John C, 289. 
Pensacola, Fla., 212. 
Pennsylvania, 86. 
Pennsylvania Gazette, the, 105. 
Pcpperell, Sir William, 103. 
Pequod War, 57. 
Perry, Oliver H., 204. 
Peru, 19. 
Petersburg, 294. 
Petrel, the, 370. 



INDEX. 



x:xxvu 



Philadelphia, 87, 126, 136, 139, 142, 148, 155, 

167, 179, 270. 
Philippine Islands, 110, 369, 384. 
Phillips, Wendell, 238. 
Phips, Sir William, 95. 
Pierce, Franklin, 255, 256-262. 
Pike's Peak, 307. 
Pike, Zebulon, 194. 
Pilgrims, 44-50. 
Pinta, 16, 347. 

Pinckney, Charles C, 185, 188. 
Pinckney, Thomas, 183, 217. 
Pirates, 97. 
Pitt, William, Earl of Chatham, 108, 118, 

127. 
Pittsburg Landing, 282. 
Pizarro, 19. 

Plains of Abraham, 110. 
Plymouth, 41, 47. 
Plymouth Colony, 45. 
Plymouth Company, 25, 40, 46. 
Pocahontas. 29,32, 76. 
Poe, Edgar Allan, 230. 
Political parties, 157, 171, 184, 220, 227, 246, 

261,311,323,343. 
Polk, James K., 237, 238, 239-247 
Ponce de Leon, Juan. 19. 
Pontiac, 110. 

Poor Richard's Almanac, 155. 
Pope, John, 285. 
Popham, Sir John, 41. 
Population, center of, 178, 342. 
Populist party. 343. 
Porter, David, 202. 
Porter, David D., 290, 298. 
Port Gibson, 290. 
Port Hudson, 290. 
Porto Rico, 364. 
Portugal, 15, 19. 
Port Royal, Carolina, 21. 
Port Roval, Nova Scotia, 22, 95, 99. 
Postage, 253, 327. 
Pottawattomies, 222. 
Powhatan, 29, 32. 
Prescott, Wm. H., 230. 
President, the, 156. 
Presidential succession, 833, 
Presquelsle, 104. 
Privateering, 98. 
Prohibition party, 312, 323. 
Proctor, Redfield, 365. 
Proprietary colonies, 82-89. 
Protocol, peace, 376. 
Providence, R. I., 56. 
Pulaski, Count, 139. 
Puritans, 35, 43, 51. 
Putnam, Israel, 108, 130. 

Quakers, 85. 
Quakers in Boston, 73. 
Quebec, 22, 89, 109. 
Quebec bill, the, 125. 
Queen Anne's War, 99. 

Railroads, 229, 252, 308, 334. 
Raisin River, 203. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, '24. 
/?a/e';p;i,the, 370. 
Randolph, Edward, 80. 
Randolph, John, 171, 196, 201, 326. 
Rebellion, Bacon's, 38. 
Reconstruction plan, the, 303. 



Red River, 194. 

Red River expedition, 296. 

Reed, Thomas B., 359. 

Regatta, international, 253. 

Representatives, House of, 156, 188, 217. 

Republican party, 261. 

Republican, Democratic-, party, 171, 181-219. 

Republican, National-, party, 220-227. 

Resaca, 295. 

Resaca de la Palma, 241. 

Restoration plan, the, 303. 

Resumption of Specie Payment, 313, 322. 

" Returning Boards," 317. 

Revels, Hiram R.,310. 

Revere, Paul, 128, 158. 

Revolution, the American, 121-150; 

Cuban, 352, 363-377; Hawaiian, 341-351; 

Spanish American, 215; Texan, 236. 
Rhode Island, 56, 64, 74, 81, 155, 165. 
Ribaut.John, 20. 
Richmond, Va., 277, 299. 
Roanoke Island, "24. 
Rochambeau, Count de, 148. 
Rolfe, John,32. 

Roosevelt, Theodore, 368, 389-395. 
Rosecrans, W.S., 282. 
"Roundheads," 35. 
Russia, 240. 

Rutledge, Edward, 126. 
Rutledge, John, 126. 
Ryswick, treaty of, 97. 

Sacs, 2.32. ^ 

Sagasta, Senor, 364, 

Samoa, 340, 362. 

Sewall, Arthur, 357. 

Shoshones, 10. 

Spotswood, Sir Alexander, 101. 

St. Augustine, 20, 99. 

St. Clair, 175. 

St. Leger, Colonel, 140. 

St. Marks, 212. 

Salem, Mass,, 52, 97. 

Salt Lake City, 248. 

Sampson, W. T., 371. 

Sandwich Islands, the, 340. 

San Francisco, 249. 

San Jacinto, 237. 

San Juan, Cuba, 373. 

San Juan, Porto Rico, 371, 377, 384. 

Santa Anna, 236. 

Santa Fe, 194, 242. 

Sa«/£7il/jn(7, the, 16, 347. 

Santiago de Cuba, 371. 

Santo Domingo, 192, 308. 

Saratoga, battle of, 141. 

Savannah, 88, 296. 

Saybrook, 56, 76. 

Schenectady, 94. 

Schley, Winfield S., 375. 

Schofield, John M., 295. 

Schurz, Carl, 311. 

Schuyler, Philip, 140. 

Scotch-Irish, 100. 

Scott, Died, decision, 262. 

Scott, Winfield, 204, 242, 254, 270,279. 

Scrooby, 44. 

" Sea to Sea" charters, 31, 47, 51, 91. 

Secession of States, 267-277. 

Sedition Act, 187. 

Seminary Ridge, 289. 

Seminoles, 212, 232, 316, 



INDEX. 



Senate, U. S., 156,217, 309, 359. 

Separatists, 44. 

Serapis, the, 145. 

Seven Years' War, IftS-lll. 

Seven Days" battles, 285. 

Seville, 19. 

Sevier, John, 17S. 

Seward, VVilliani H., 227, 250, 265,301. 

Sewing machine, 229. 

Shafter, \\m. R.. 373, 376. 

Shakespeare, 201. 

Shannon, the, 203. 

Shays' Rebellion, 154. 

Shenandoah Vallev, 294, 299. 

Sheridan, Philip, 291, ;i94, i.'95, 299. 

Sherman Act, 349. 

Sherman, John. 3.59. 

Sherman, Roger, 126, 133. 

Sherman, William T., 291, 296 

Shiloh, 282. 

Shirley, William, 103. 

Shiras, George, 361. 

Sigel, Franz, 293. 

Siboney, 373. 

Sioux, 338. 

Six Nations, 85. 

Slavery, 32, 150, 170. 214, 227, 243, 240-303. 

Slavery in the Territories, 262-'274. 



Slidell,lohn, 280. 
Smith, Caleb B., 276. 



Smith, Green Clav, 317. 

Smith, John, 28,41. 

Smith, Kirby, 280. 

Smugglers, 114. 

Social life in New England, 71, 114,167. 

Social life in Virginia, 39, 107. 

•'Sons of Liberty," IIG. 

Soto, Fernando do, 20. 

South America, 215. 

South Virginia, 2.5. 

South Carolina, 85, 99, 226, 267. 

Southampton, 45. 

Spanish colonies, 14-20. 

Spanish fleet at Santiago, 375. 

Speedwell, the, 45. 

Spoils system, 224. 

Spotswood. Sir Alexander, 101, 102. 

Spottsylvania, 294. 

"Stalwarts," 331. 

Stamp Act, 116. 

Stamp Congress, 118. 

Standard time-tables, 327. 

Standish, Miles, 46. 49. 

Stanley, Henry M.. 329. 

Stanton, Edwin M., 276. 

Stanton, Elizabeth Cadv, 254. 

Stark, John, lO.s, 129, 140. 

" Star Spangled Banner," the, 205, 275. 

Stars and Stripes, 139. 

State Banks, 224, 227. 

State debts assumed by Congress, 165. 

State House in Philadelphia, 134. 

"States' Rights." 171, 188. 224 ,2t:5. 

Steamboats, 211. 

Stephens, Alexander H., 250, 268. 

Stephens, William, 70. 

Steuben, Baron von, 142. 

Stillwater, battle of, 141. 

St. John, John P., 329. 

Stockton, Robert F., 242. 

Stony Point, battle of, 143. 

Story, Joseph, 230. 

Stowe, Harriet B.,261. 



Stuart, Gilbert, 230. 

Stuyvesant, Peter, 63, 75. 

Submarine cable, 308. 

Subtreasury system, 234. 

Suffrage, woman's, 254, 317 n, 3:« n. 351 n 

Sullivan's Island, 1776, 135. 

Sullivan, John, 145. 

Sumner, Charles, 2.58. 

Sumter, Thomas, 146. 

Supreme Court, 163, 217, 224, 318. 

Swanzey, 78. 

Swedes. 62. 

Taft, William, 39.5. 

Tagals, the, 384. 

Tanev. Roger B., 262. 

Tariffs, 104,221, 224, '226, 267,280,339,350,361 

Tarleton, Bannastre, 146. 

Tarlac, 381. 

Tarratines, 63. 

Taxes, 114, 11.5. 

Taylor, Bayard, 315. 

Taylor, Zachary, 241, 247-251. 

Tea ships. 124. 

Tecumseh, '200, 204. 

Telegraph, the, 238n, 243 n. 

Tennessee, 178. 

Terry, Alfred S., 298. 

Tesla, Nikola, 346. 

Texas, '236, 240, 269, 305. 

Texas, the, 374. 

Thames, battle of the, 204. 

Thirteenth amendment, 303. 

Thomas, George H., 2,S1, 291. 

Thurman, Allen G., 330. 

Thurston, John M,, 365. 

Ticonderoga, Fort, 109. 130,140. 

Tilden, Samuel J., 317. 

Tippecanoe, battle of, 200. 

Tobacco, 31,82. 

Tonti, Henri de, 91. 

Toombs, Robert, 274. 

Topeka Constitution, the, 260. 

Toral, General, 374. 

Tories, 12;?, 141,144,146,150. 

Toscanelli, 15. 

Town-meetings, 66. 

Treat, Robert, 81. 

Training day, 69, 105. 

Townshend, Charles, 121. 

Townshend Acts, 121. 

Treasury, U. S., 164. 

Treaty, Aix la Chapelle, 103; the Webster- 

Ashburton, ■23r); with China, :i06 ; Ghent 

206; Guadalupe, 244; P'aris, (1763,), 110; 

(1783,) 149; (1898,) 378; Ryswick, 97 

Utrecht, 99. 
Trenton, 137. 
Trent, William, 104. 
Trent, the, 280. 
Tripoli, 191. 

Trumbull, John, 217, 230. 
Tunis, 191. 
Turkey, 217. 
Turner, Nat., 227. 
Tuscaroras, 81. 
Tyler, John, 235-238. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, 261. 
Underground Railroad, 264. 
Union Pacific Railroad, 308. 
United Colonies of N. E., 61-65. 
United Colonies of America, 130-169. 



INDEX. 



United states, the, 186, 202. 

United States of America, lii6, 159, 162, 165. 

174, 192, 224, 234, 2:39, 245, 383. 
Utah, 354. 

Valley Forge, 139. 

Vane, Harry, 58, 69, 73. 

Van Buren, Martin, 225, 233-235. 

Van Rensselaer, Kiliaen, 62. 

Van Rensselaer, Stephen, 202. 

Venezuela, 354, 371. 

Venice, 7. 

Vera Cruz, 242. 

Vermont, 112, 176. 

Verrazzano, 18. 

Vespucius, Americus, 19. 

Victoria, Queen, 253. 

Vicksburg, 290. 

Viking ship, 347. 

Vincennes, Ind., 144, 174. 

Virginia, 24-40, 277. 

Virginia Resolves, 117. 

Virginius, the, 309. 

Viscayans,384. 

Vizcaya, the, 364. 

Wadsworth, Joseplr, 81, 95. 

Wallace, Lew, 282. 

Wampanoags, 63, 78. 

Wampum, 71. 

War of 1812,201-207. 

War of the Rebellion, 274-303. 

War of the Revolution, 128-151. 

War with Mexico, 241-215. 

War with Spain, 363-385. 

Wars, colonial, 94-111. 

Wars, Indian, 57,78. 212, 232, 315. 

Washington, State of, 3:« 

Washington, George, 83, 101, 117, 131, 155, 

161,163, 163-184, 186. 
Washington, John, 83. 
Washington, Lawrence, 102. 
Washington, D. C, 189,205. 
Washington Elm, 132. 
Wasp, the, 202. 
Watson, Thomas E.,3.57. 
Wayne, Anthony, 143, 176. 
Weather bureau, 308. 
Weaver, ]ames R., 323,343. 
Webster, Daniel, 217, 224, 235, 249, 255. 
Webster, Noah, 2^0. 
Weed, Thurlow, 259. 
West, Benjamin, 230. 



West Jersey, 75,86. 

West Point, 113. 

West Point, militarv school at, 201. 

West Virginia, 101, 277, 306. 

Wethersfield, .56. 

Weyler, General, 363. 

Weymouth, 48. 

Whalley, Edward, 75. 

Wheeler, Joseph, 373. 

Whigs, 123, 15S, 227, 2.35, 244, 254,256. 

White, Edward D.,361. 

White, John, 2.5. 

White Plains, 136. 

Whitney, Eli, 170. 

Whittier, John G., 230. 

Wildcat Banks, 233. 

Wilderness, battle of the, 294. 

Wilkes, Captain Charles, 240,280,328. 

William III, 93-99. 

Williamsburg, Va., 30, 101. 

Williams, Roger, hl-M, 64. 

Wilmington, N. C. 290, 298. 

Wilmot proviso. 246. 

Wilson, James, 3.59. 

Wilson Tariff, 3.50. 

Winchester, 295. 

Winslow, Edward, 49. 

Windsor, Conn. ,.56. 

Winnebagoes, 232. 

Winthrop, John, 52, 77. 

Winthrop, Jr., John, 56, 74. 

Wirt, William, 196, 216. 

Wisconsin, 2.S9. 

Witchcraft, 97. 

Wolfe, James, 109. 

"Woman's Rights," 254. 

Wood, Leonard, 368. 

Woodford, Stuart L.,30S. 

World's Fair at London, 2.53: at New York, 

256; Philadelphia, 314; Chicago, 343-348; 

BufTnio, 388; St. Louis, 393. 
Writs of assistance, 115. 
W\oming, .338. 
Wyoming, Pa., massacres, 144. 

X. Y. Z. letters, 185. 

Yeardley, Governor, 33. 
Yachting, international, '253. 
York, the Duke of, 7,5, 87. 
Yorktown, 147. 
Young, Brigham, 248. 



AUG 15 1910 



One copy del. to Cat. Div. 



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Qi ^i'V 



